scholarly journals Attending the birth: competition for obstetrical training by medical students and midwives in nineteenth-century France

2021 ◽  
Vol 65 (2) ◽  
pp. 197-217
Author(s):  
Morag Martin
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Clinical Training ◽  
Male Students ◽  
Traditional System ◽  
Hospitalised Patients ◽  
Nineteenth Century France ◽  
Medical Faculties ◽  
The Government ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The 1960S

AbstractThough male doctors gained prominence at the bedsides of pregnant mothers in nineteenth-century Europe, the clinical training they received in medical academies remained cursory. In France, to supplement the medical faculties, the government set up schools for both health officers and midwives which were meant to teach practical obstetrics. This paper focusses on the city of Arras, where these two groups of students competed for the limited numbers of pregnant patients on which to practice their future professions. Like many in their field, two prominent instructors in Arras at each end of the century promoted male obstetrical education over female, arguing that practical education for health officers would lead to safer births for mothers and infants. By the 1870s, the obstetrics instructor adopted germ theory, tying improved hygiene and thus mortality rates to male students’ access to hospitalised patients. Despite their arguments, in Arras, the male students never gained priority in clinical obstetrical training, which midwifery students kept. To keep male students out of maternity wards, local administrators used fears that gender mixing would lead to immoral acts or thoughts. In doing so, they protected the traditional system of midwifery rather than invest in more costly male medical education. Championing midwifery students’ rights to the spaces and bodies needed for their education, however, delayed adoption of hygiene and antiseptic practices that led to lower maternal mortality. Unable to adapt to changing requirements by the state, the medical school closed in 1883, while the midwifery programme thrived until the 1960s.

The Thiers Government and the Outbreak of Civil War in France, February–April 1871

1980 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 813-831
Author(s):  
Robert Tombs
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Civil War ◽  
Passion Play ◽  
Nineteenth Century France ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Government

In the numerous works devoted to the French civil war of 1871, nothing has so much been taken for granted as the motives of the government during the six weeks that separated its taking office on 19 February and the outbreak of fighting on 2 April. Thiers and his colleagues are part of the myth of the Commune, the scribes and pharisees of the revolutionary passion play. They fill the roles well: there are few figures so unprepossessing in the history of nineteenth-century France.

The End of the Catholic Nineteenth Century in 1968

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark S. Massa
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Birth Control ◽  
Natural Law ◽  
Thomas Aquinas ◽  
Historical Overview ◽  
Human Reason ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
American Catholic ◽  
Law Making

This chapter narrates the promulgation of Pope Paul VI’s famous letter on birth control in 1968, and the unfavorable response it received by Catholic theologians. It offers a historical overview of how St. Thomas Aquinas utilized Aristotle’s idea of natural law, making that concept basic in Catholic sexual teaching. The author describes the nineteenth-century followers of Aquinas as “neo-scholastics” who prided themselves on a systematic interpretation of Catholic doctrine in light of an unchanging law embedded in an almost objectivist understanding of “nature” by God, discoverable by human reason, the moral implications of which were equally unchanging. The author argues that it was this rigid nineteenth-century neo-scholastic natural law tradition that helped to set up the collapse within the American Catholic community in the decades after the 1960s.

scholarly journals The ‘Public’ Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1858–1878

2020 ◽  
Vol 47 (1) ◽  
pp. 99-114
Author(s):  
Amit Kumar Gupta
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Public Space ◽  
Ordinary People ◽  
The Public ◽  
Significant Change ◽  
The Government ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The One ◽  
The Masses ◽  
The Unemployed

The first museum to be set up in India in 1814 by the British Orientalists underwent a significant change when the Government of India took it over in 1858. The change was shaped by the experience of the great Indian uprising of 1857 to which, most importantly, the ordinary people (artisans, peasants, the unemployed etc.) rallied. Though the Raj succeeded eventually in suppressing the Revolt, its officials were deeply disturbed by the popular uprising and its effects. Policies were designed thereafter with these anxieties in mind—notably the one for running the museum in Calcutta. The authorities designed the museum as a ‘public’ space rather than as an ‘imperial’ edifice, and they hoped to get over their prolonged alienation from the masses by opening its doors to the ordinary people. This article examines the background and intent of the establishment of the Museum in Calcutta and its administration in the nineteenth century, with particular attention to the conception of the ‘public’ that underpinned it. It also outlines how the public in question responded to the museum.

scholarly journals Relevance of Traditional Indian Medical Concepts in Psychosomatic Medicine

2017 ◽  
Vol 53 (03) ◽  
pp. 148-155
Author(s):  
Mamta Sood ◽  
Saurabh K Singh ◽  
Rakesh K Chadda
Keyword(s):  
Psychosomatic Medicine ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Evidence Base ◽  
Full Potential ◽  
Close Link ◽  
Traditional System ◽  
Mind And Body ◽  
Health Related ◽  
The Government ◽  
Set Up

AbstractTraditional medicine comprises of health related knowledge, skill and practices indigenous to different cultures. India has a rich heritage of traditional system of medicine that emphasizes the close link between mind and body like the psychosomatic medicine. The government of India has set up a department of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy). The importance of life style, dietary and environmental factors in the development of various psychosomatic disorders has been emphasized in all the Indian traditional systems of medicine. Although studies have shown acceptability and beneficial role of traditional medicinal practices, efforts should be made to tease out and conduct research on the practices, which can help physicians in improving well-being of the patients. More rigorous research is required in the direction to generate evidence base for these practices so that their full potential can be realized.

The Development of Population Policy in Britain

1973 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 855-862 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Simons
Keyword(s):  
Population Growth ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Population Policy ◽  
British West Indies ◽  
New Towns ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Average Family Size ◽  
The Government ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The 1960S

Between 1960 and 1964, the projected population of the United Kingdom at the end of the century was revised from 64 to 75 million. Ecologists and others clamored for a policy aimed at controlling population growth before it placed intolerable burdens on resources and amenities. Skeptics retorted, however, that population policy was not a substitute for environmental policy, that average family size (about 2.5 children) was already relatively low, and that the problems were being exaggerated. Successive British governments showed little enthusiasm for the adoption of a positive policy on population growth. In the late 1960s public birth control services were extended, but these were regarded as a part of health care and not as an instrument of population policy. The only measures to limit numbers were those adopted in the 1960s to restrict immigration from the British West Indies and other parts of the Commonwealth. In 1971 the government set up a panel of experts to assess the available evidence on the significance of population trends. A much more purposeful attitude had been adopted toward the problems associated with uneven distribution of population. After the Second World War, plans for building construction and most other forms of development had to conform to physical planning policy. New towns were established to draw population from congested urban areas, and businessmen were given incentives to expand in those areas where unemployment tended to encourage migration to more prosperous parts of Great Britain.

Effect of health insurance on direct hospitalisation costs for in-patients with ischaemic stroke in China

2018 ◽  
Vol 42 (1) ◽  
pp. 39 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ma Yong ◽  
Xiong Xianjun ◽  
Li Jinghu ◽  
Fang Yunyun
Keyword(s):  
Health Insurance ◽  
Cerebrovascular Disease ◽  
Financial Burden ◽  
Reimbursement Rate ◽  
Financial Investment ◽  
Hospitalised Patients ◽  
The Government ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Out Of Pocket Costs

Objectives The aim of the present study was to determine the direct medical costs of hospitalisations for ischaemic stroke (IS) in-patients with different types of health insurance in China and to analyse the demographic characteristics of hospitalised patients, based on data supplied by the China Health Insurance Research Association (CHIRA). Methods A nationwide and cross-sectional sample of IS in-patients with International Classifications of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) Code I63 who were ensured under either the Basic Medical Insurance Scheme for Employees (BMISE) or the Basic Medical Insurance Scheme for Urban Residents (BMISUR) was extracted from the CHIRA claims database. A retrospective analysis was used with regard to patient demographics, total hospital charges and costs. Results Of the 49588 hospitalised patients who had been diagnosed with IS in the CHIRA claims database, 28850 (58.2%) were men (mean age 67.34 years) and 20738 (41.8%) were women (mean age 69.75 years). Of all patients, 40347 (81.4%) were insured by the BMISE, whereas 8724 (17.6%) were insured by the BMISUR; the mean age of these groups was 68.55 and 67.62 years respectively. For BMISE-insured in-patients, the cost per hospitalisation was RMB10131 (95% confidence interval (CI) 10014–10258), the cost per hospital day was RMB787 (95% CI 766–808), the out-of-pocket costs per patient were RMB2346 (95% CI 2303–2388) and the reimbursement rate was 74.61% (95% CI 74.48–74.73%). For BMISUR-insured in-patients the cost per hospitalisation was RMB7662 (95% CI 7473–7852), the cost per hospital day was RMB744 (95% CI 706–781), the out-of-pocket costs per patient were RMB3356 (95% CI 3258–3454) and the reimbursement rate was 56.46% (95% CI 56.08–56.84%). Conclusions Costs per hospitalisation, costs per hospital day and the reimbursement rate were higher for BMISE- than BMISUR-insured in-patients, but BMISE-insured patients had lower out-of-pocket costs. The financial burden was higher for BMISUR- than BMISE-insured in-patients. For BMISUR-insured in-patients, the out-of-pocket payment was 43.54% of total expenses, which means the government should increase the financial investment, raise reimbursement rates and set up differential reimbursements to meet the health needs of in-patients with different income levels. What is known about the topic? Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases are major non-communicable diseases affecting the health of the Chinese population. The China Health Statistics Yearbook (2013) reported that across all in-patients, 195million (5.82%) had been discharged with a diagnosis of cerebrovascular disease. Of these, 118million had IS, accounting for 60.51% of all in-patients with cerebrovascular disease and 54.97% of hospitalisation costs for all cerebrovascular disease in-patients. After the two basic insurance systems, namely the BMISE and BMISUR, had been established, the out-of-pocket expenses for patients were reduced. However, to date there have been no studies investigating how the different types of health insurance (i.e. the BMISE and the BMISUR) affected the costs of treatment of IS in-patients in China. What does this paper add? This paper reports the direct costs for patients diagnosed with IS based on data supplied by the CHIRA. Direct hospitalisation costs depending on the type of insurance cover, age and gender were also evaluated. What are the implications for practitioners? The present study found that the personal financial burden of disease treatment was higher for in-patients insured under the BMISUR than BMISE. For in-patients insured under the BMISUR, the out-of-pocket payment was 43.54% of total expenses, which means the government should increase the financial investment, raise reimbursement rates and set up differential reimbursement rates to meet the health needs of patients with different incomes.

Romania, philosophy in

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marta Petreu ◽  
Ioan Muntean ◽  
Mircea Flonta
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Initial Period ◽  
Philosophical Thinking ◽  
Ethical Thought ◽  
Modern Culture ◽  
Contemporary World ◽  
The Status ◽  
Characteristic Features ◽  
Set Up ◽  
The 1960S

The origins of Romanian philosophical thinking can be traced back to the late Middle Ages. The first attempts were made in monasteries and princely courts; the language used was Church Slavonic or Latin. The first original philosophical work in Romanian dates from 1698 and was written by Dimitrie Cantemir, Prince of Moldavia. The first Romanian philosophical school, the Transylvanian School, formed in Transylvania at the end of the eighteenth century, was an expression of Enlightenment ideas. Romanian philosophical thinking in the nineteenth century was imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment and Kantianism. Romanian modern culture and, implicitly, modern Romanian philosophy were born in the second half of the nineteenth century, under the influence of Titu Maiorescu, a major cultural personality. At the peak of its evolution between the two world wars, Romanian philosophy had the following characteristic features: it was closely related to literature, in the sense that most Romanian philosophers were also important writers; it showed excessive preoccupation with the issue of Romanian identity; it was involved in Romania’s historical, political and ideological debates, fuelling attitudes in favour of or against Westernization and modernization; it synchronized quickly with Western philosophical thinking; and it was (and still is) lacking in ethical thought. During the first half of the twentieth century, Romanian philosophers focused mainly on discussing the status of metaphysics and its right to existence, followed by any individual efforts to set up an original philosophical system; secondly, they were interested in the issue of identity, the theme of Romanian-ness, which led to the development of the philosophy of culture and history, and to the involvement of philosophers in politics. The most important original philosophical constructions were those of Lucian Blaga and Constantin Noica. During the communist regime, an initial period of complete stagnation of independent thinking was followed, at the beginning of the 1960s, by a relative liberalization that favoured research in logic, the philosophy of science, and the writing of literary-philosophical essays. Romanian philosophy since 1989 has made efforts to restructure its institutional framework, reclaim the formerly forbidden fields, and synchronize - through translations and studies - with contemporary world philosophy.

scholarly journals France Speaks!

2020 ◽  
Vol 43 (3) ◽  
pp. 421-450
Author(s):  
Diego Palacios Cerezales
Keyword(s):  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Public Debate ◽  
The Public ◽  
Napoleon Bonaparte ◽  
De Se ◽  
Nineteenth Century France ◽  
The Government ◽  
Débat Public ◽  
Popular Mobilization

Abstract In 1851 more than 1.6 million signatures endorsed a petition for an amendment to the 1848 constitution that would have allowed Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte to stand for reelection. Following contemporary critics who claimed that the movement had been orchestrated by the government, scholars have been little impressed by this mobilization, which produced the largest petition of nineteenth-century France. By analyzing the petitions and the signatures themselves, official reports, correspondence of key actors, and the public debate, this article reappraises the campaign, making three claims: that a government-sponsored petition merits analysis in the context of the explosion of popular mobilization that followed 1848, that the depiction provided by the republicans of the participation of the administration in the campaign is partial and incomplete, and that the petitioners were not dependent and manipulated individuals but purposeful citizens who understood and supported the petition they signed. The article concludes that the campaign would not have succeeded without the genuine popularity of the president and the surfacing of a strong popular Bonapartist undercurrent. En 1851, des pétitions, rassemblant plus de 1,6 million de signatures, ont demandé une révision de la Constitution permettant à Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte de se porter candidat à un deuxième mandat présidentiel. Selon les républicains, le mouvement avait été orchestré et manipulé par le gouvernement, et les historiens ont aussi dédaigné cette mobilisation, alors qu'elle était la pétition la plus signée en France au dix-neuvième siècle. En analysant les pétitions et les signatures elles-mêmes, les rapports officiels, la correspondance des acteurs clés et le débat public, l'article réévalue cette campagne et propose trois arguments : (1) que les pétitions parrainées par le gouvernement font partie de l'histoire des mobilisations populaires ; (2) que l'image d'une administration toute-puissante mise au service de la campagne ne correspond pas à la réalité ; et enfin (3) que la plupart des pétitionnaires n'étaient pas des individus manipulés, mais des citoyens conscients du sens de leurs actions. La campagne n'aurait pas réussi sans l'expérience de la démocratie depuis 1848, la popularité du président et l'émergence d'un bonapartisme populaire.

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