Direct numerical simulations are used to examine the behaviour of wall-pressure fluctuations $p_{w}$ in a flat-plate turbulent boundary layer with large adverse and favourable pressure gradients, involving separation and reattachment. The Reynolds number $Re_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}$ based on momentum thickness is equal to 300, 600 and 900. Particular attention is given to effects of Reynolds number on root-mean-square (r.m.s.) values, frequency/power spectra and instantaneous fields. The possible scaling laws are also examined as compared with the existing direct numerical simulation and experimental data. The r.m.s. value of $p_{w}$ normalized by the local maximum Reynolds shear stress $-\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\overline{uv}_{max}$ (Simpson et al. J. Fluid Mech. vol. 177, 1987, pp. 167–186; Na & Moin J. Fluid Mech. vol. 377, 1998b, pp. 347–373) leads to near plateau (i.e. $p_{w\,rms}/-\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\overline{uv}_{max}=2.5\sim 3$) in the adverse pressure gradient and separated regions in which the frequency spectra exhibit good collapse at low frequencies. The magnitude of $p_{w\,rms}/-\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\overline{uv}_{max}$ is however reduced down to 1.8 near reattachment where good collapse is also obtained with normalization by the local maximum wall-normal Reynolds stress $\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\overline{vv}_{max}$. Near reattachment, $p_{w\,rms}/-\unicode[STIX]{x1D70C}\overline{vv}_{max}=1.2$ is attained unambiguously independently of the Reynolds number and pressure gradient. The present magnitude (1.2) is smaller than (1.35) obtained for step-induced separation by Ji & Wang (J. Fluid Mech. vol. 712, 2012, pp. 471–504). The reason for this difference is intrinsically associated with convective nature of a pressure-induced separation bubble near reattachment where the magnitude of $p_{w\,rms}$ depends essentially on the favourable pressure gradient. The resulting mean flow acceleration leads to delay of the r.m.s. peak after reattachment. Attention is also given to structures of $p_{w}$. It is shown that large-scale spanwise rollers of low pressure fluctuations are formed above the bubble, whilst changing to large-scale streamwise elongated structures after reattachment. These large-scale structures become more prominent with increasing $Re_{\unicode[STIX]{x1D703}}$ and affect $p_{w}$ significantly.
Ionospheric dynamics and drivers obtained from a physics-based data assimilation model
