scholarly journals Rice as an Early form of Money in the Economic Sense: Satisfying Store of Value, Unit of Account and Medium of Exchange Requirements

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 89-94
Author(s):  
Paul F. Gentle
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Monetary Theory ◽  
Early Form ◽  
Conventional Form ◽  
Subjective Value ◽  
The World ◽  
Nutritional Needs ◽  
Time Periods ◽  
Special Case ◽  
Different Parts

This article examines the special case of rice in different parts of the World, as it was used for an additional purpose, besides providing for nutritional needs of people. When confidence in a system of currency with coins is present, this more conventional form of money takes precedence. A respected economic form of currency which may include paper and coins or accounts thereof, has all three elements of money: a medium of exchange, a store of value and as a unit of account. In this article, the concept of value includes subjective value, what people have in terms of pleasure and displeasure in regard to owning and seeing a particular object. This article shows that rice satisfied the three requirements for serving as a form of money, at some time periods and in some areas of the World. It has been found that rice met the three criteria necessary for them to be a type of money, in history in different countries. Some examples include certain past time periods in parts of Indonesia, Greece, North America, Japan, and some other places. Although rice was later found to not work as well, compared to some other specific forms of money. Understanding how different forms of money appear and then are replaced by other forms of money is important in the quest to understand what exactly money is. Monetary theory concepts concerning Gresham’s Law and the Quantity Theory of Money are discussed in regard to using rice as money.

scholarly journals Optimizing Pharmacodynamic Target Attainment Using the MYSTIC Antibiogram: Data Collected in North America in 2002

2004 ◽  
Vol 48 (7) ◽  
pp. 2464-2470 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph L. Kuti ◽  
Charles H. Nightingale ◽  
David P. Nicolau
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
North America ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Empirical Therapy ◽  
Target Attainment ◽  
The World ◽  
Dosing Regimens ◽  
Higher Doses ◽  
Initial Empirical Therapy ◽  
Different Parts

ABSTRACT The OPTAMA Program is intended to examine typical antimicrobial regimens used in the treatment of common nosocomial pathogens and the likelihood of these regimens attaining appropriate pharmacodynamic exposure in different parts of the world. A 5,000-subject Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate pharmacodynamic target attainment for meropenem, imipenem, ceftazidime, cefepime, piperacillin-tazobactam, and ciprofloxacin against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Standard dosing regimens from North America were used. Pharmacokinetic parameter variability was derived from existing healthy volunteer data, and MIC data came from the 2002 MYSTIC Program. Ciprofloxacin displayed the lowest target attainment against all bacterial species (41 to 46% for A. baumannii, 53 to 59% for P. aeruginosa, and 80 to 85% for the Enterobacteriaceae). Increasing the dose to 400 mg every 8 h did not significantly increase target attainment against nonfermenters. Piperacillin-tazobactam target attainments were similar to that of ceftazidime against all pathogens. Higher doses of both compounds were needed to achieve better target attainments against P. aeruginosa. Overall, meropenem, imipenem, and cefepime attained the highest probabilities of attainment against the Enterobacteriaceae (99 to 100%). The carbapenems appear to be the most useful agents against A. baumannii (88 to 92%), and these agents, along with higher doses of any of the β-lactams, would be the most appropriate choices for empirical therapy for P. aeruginosa infection. Given the lack of agreement between percent susceptibility and probability of target attainment for certain antimicrobial regimens, a methodology employing stochastic pharmacodynamic analyses may be a more useful tool for differentiating the most-optimal compounds and dosing regimens in the clinical setting of initial empirical therapy.

STUDIES ON CLOVER YELLOW MOSAIC AND WHITE CLOVER MOSAIC VIRUSES

1961 ◽  
Vol 39 (3) ◽  
pp. 655-665 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael J. Pratt
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
North America ◽  
White Clover ◽  
Western North America ◽  
The World ◽  
Cross Absorption ◽  
Differential Hosts ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Different Parts

Two viruses, clover yellow mosaic (CYMV) and white clover mosaic (WCMV), were separated from mixed natural infections of various clovers by inoculation of differential hosts. The host reactions of four CYMV and two WCMV isolates were studied in detail. Precipitin tests showed that the two viruses are not related serologically. In cross-absorption tests different host reactions characterizing individual CYMV isolates were reflected in serological interactions; with WCMV isolates the relationship was less clearly defined. A comparison of isolates from different parts of the world by serological methods showed that CYMV is common in western North America, while WCMV occurs in Europe, North America, and New Zealand. Pea mottle and pea wilt viruses may be equated with CYMV and WCMV respectively.

Facts and figures about Huntington’s disease

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Oliver Quarrell
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Huntington's Disease ◽  
Huntington’S Disease ◽  
Original Description ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
Different Parts

This chapter gives a brief history of Huntington’s disease (HD) starting with the original description by George Huntington. The prevalence of HD is discussed together with data variations in different parts of the world. For example the incidence of HD in Europe and North America is approximately 1 person in 10,000. Apart from humans, no other animal naturally develops HD. The condition can start at almost any age but it is more frequent in midlife. The duration of the disease can be very variable but 20 years is often given as an approximate average.

Relational Objects: Connecting People and Things Through Pasifika Styles

2008 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 159-179 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anita Herle
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Media Representations ◽  
Ethnic Boundaries ◽  
Law And Ethics ◽  
The World ◽  
Cultural Properties ◽  
The Common ◽  
Universal Museum ◽  
Different Parts

Debates around cultural properties tend to focus on law and ethics, on appropriation and ownership, with media representations often producing stereotypes that reinforce and polarize the terms of the debate. The common, typically polemical, notion is that rapacious museums are merely a final resting point for captive static objects, with repatriation viewed as simply restorative compensation. A robust challenge to this view was developed in the Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums signed in 2002 by the directors of 19 leading museums in Europe and North America. The concept of the universal museum asserts that objects are cared for and held in trust for the world, overriding shifting political and ethnic boundaries and enabling the visitor to see “different parts of the world as indissolubly linked.” Although many would be in sympathy with the rhetorical position asserted, critics have argued that the declaration is a thinly veiled attempt to bolster immunity to repatriation claims. On both sides of the debate, the hegemonic position of many museums remains unsettling.

10. New Society

2021 ◽  
pp. 209-232
Author(s):  
John S. Dryzek
Keyword(s):  
Social Movements ◽  
Environmental Justice ◽  
New Deal ◽  
Political Activism ◽  
Political Dimension ◽  
Conventional Form ◽  
Global Environmental ◽  
Green Politics ◽  
The World ◽  
Different Parts

The more political dimension of green radicalism analyzed in this chapter believes that ecological limits and boundaries can only be confronted, and the path to a better society charted, though political activism and thoroughgoing change in dominant institutions and practices. It finds its most conventional form of organization in green political parties that have been part of the electoral landscape since the 1980s, and that have in several countries (especially in Europe) joined governing coalitions and provided government ministers. However, social movements such as Occupy, Extinction Rebellion, Transition Initiatives, and those for environmental justice and sustainable materialism matter just as much. Movements for global environmental justice and the environmentalism of the global poor, and radical summits, have taken radical green politics to different parts of the world and to the global stage. An eco-anarchist disposition is associated with social ecology, and some radicals seek to link green politics and socialism. Green radicalism takes on economics in “doughnut economics” and proposals for a “Green New Deal”.

The gambling industry: global structures and modern trends

2018 ◽  
pp. 23-36
Author(s):  
Pekka Sulkunen ◽  
Thomas F. Babor ◽  
Jenny Cisneros Örnberg ◽  
Michael Egerer ◽  
Matilda Hellman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Financial Markets ◽  
First Century ◽  
The Internet ◽  
Gambling Industry ◽  
The Past ◽  
The World ◽  
Digital Transactions ◽  
Gambling Expenditures ◽  
Different Parts

This chapter describes the growth of the global gambling industry in terms of its volume, structure, and the distribution of different types of games in different parts of the world over the past 50 years, especially in the first two decades of the twenty-first century. Globalization of the market through the internet threatens the ability of governments to tax or otherwise harvest revenue from gambling. However, liberalizing regulations on gambling started in many countries before the internet became a relevant medium. Fiscal motives and ideological reasons probably explain the liberalizing trend because it started at the same time that deregulation of financial markets affected the supply of credit and boosted digital transactions. Growth in gambling markets has been greatest in North America, Asia , and Europe. Countries with high overall gambling expenditures tend to spend proportionately larger amounts in casinos and on gambling machines outside casinos.

Still not digging, much

2011 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 10-17 ◽  
Author(s):  
John F. Cherry
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Relative Importance ◽  
Timely Manner ◽  
Contract Archaeology ◽  
Multi Stage ◽  
The World ◽  
Specific Factors ◽  
Eastern Caribbean ◽  
Dramatic Growth ◽  
Different Parts

AbstractThe impulse to keep excavating, set against widespread failures to publish in a timely manner, has created a crisis of confidence for archaeology. This is especially so in Europe and North America, where contract archaeology has witnessed dramatic growth in recent decades, but it is not universally the case. Far from being the defining practice of the discipline, excavation is not the only technique for generating data relevant to archaeological problems and, ideally, should be deployed as one element in multi-stage, multi-scalar fieldwork strategies. In any given situation in different parts of the world, many locally specific factors affect the role and relative importance of excavation. Examples are given from the author's recent fieldwork in Greece, southern Armenia and the eastern Caribbean.

Historical Background and Population of Camels

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-14 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hiba Fathi Al-Sayyed
Keyword(s):  
North America ◽  
Mitochondrial Genome ◽  
Genome Analysis ◽  
Middle Eastern ◽  
Economic Value ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
Eastern Region ◽  
The World ◽  
Different Parts ◽  
Agricultural Organization

Camels were designated as the ships of the desert. This chapter includes some introductory remarks on the historical background and population of camels. In this chapter, the origin of camels based on the most recent mitochondrial genome analysis and incisor fossils was reviewed. Based on the results of these studies, camels were found in different parts of the world such as North America, Africa, Russia, China, Magnolia, Iran, and Middle Eastern region. Different genus and species of camels were also reviewed in the chapter. Additionally, the distribution of camel population worldwide as well as the uses of camels were reviewed. This chapter introduces some essential figures on the economic value of camels based on the most recent statistics of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).

BIOASSAY CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL URINARY GONADOTROPHIN EXTRACTS

1963 ◽  
Vol 42 (2) ◽  
pp. 214-224
Author(s):  
Raymond C. Mellinger ◽  
Jalileh A. Mansour ◽  
Richmond W. Smith
Keyword(s):  
Reference Material ◽  
Young Women ◽  
Reference Standard ◽  
General Acceptance ◽  
Modifying Factors ◽  
Large Numbers ◽  
The World ◽  
Quantitative Bioassay ◽  
Different Parts ◽  
Age And Sex

ABSTRACT A reference standard is widely sought for use in the quantitative bioassay of pituitary gonadotrophin recovered from urine. The biologic similarity of pooled urinary extracts obtained from large numbers of subjects, utilizing groups of different age and sex, preparing and assaying the materials by varying techniques in different parts of the world, has lead to a general acceptance of such preparations as international gonadotrophin reference standards. In the present study, however, the extract of pooled urine from a small number of young women is shown to produce a significantly different bioassay response from that of the reference materials. Gonadotrophins of individual subjects likewise varied from the multiple subject standards in many instances. The cause of these differences is thought to be due to the modifying influence of non-hormonal substances extracted from urine with the gonadotrophin and not necessarily to variations in the gonadotrophins themselves. Such modifying factors might have similar effects in a comparative assay of pooled extracts contributed by many subjects, but produce significant variations when material from individual subjects is compared. It is concluded that the expression of potency of a gonadotrophic extract in terms of pooled reference material to which it is not essentially similar may diminish rather than enhance the validity of the assay.

Christianity in the Twentieth Century

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brian Stanley
Keyword(s):  
Latin America ◽  
Racial Identity ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Central Importance ◽  
Regional Survey ◽  
History Of Christianity ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of ◽  
Sub Saharan ◽  
Different Parts

This book charts the transformation of one of the world's great religions during an age marked by world wars, genocide, nationalism, decolonization, and powerful ideological currents, many of them hostile to Christianity. The book traces how Christianity evolved from a religion defined by the culture and politics of Europe to the expanding polycentric and multicultural faith it is today—one whose growing popular support is strongest in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, China, and other parts of Asia. The book sheds critical light on themes of central importance for understanding the global contours of modern Christianity, illustrating each one with contrasting case studies, usually taken from different parts of the world. Unlike other books on world Christianity, this one is not a regional survey or chronological narrative, nor does it focus on theology or ecclesiastical institutions. The book provides a history of Christianity as a popular faith experienced and lived by its adherents, telling a compelling and multifaceted story of Christendom's fortunes in Europe, North America, and across the rest of the globe. It demonstrates how Christianity has had less to fear from the onslaughts of secularism than from the readiness of Christians themselves to accommodate their faith to ideologies that privilege racial identity or radical individualism.

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