Microhabitat Associations for the Threatened Cheat Mountain Salamander in Relation to Early-stage Red Spruce Restoration Areas

The Central Appalachian Spruce Restoration Initiative was formed to promote restoration of red spruce Picea rubens forests in Central Appalachia. One goal of the initiative is to increase availability and enhance quality of habitat for wildlife, including the threatened Cheat Mountain salamander Plethodon nettingi. The purpose of this research was to compare microhabitat characteristics between an occupied Cheat Mountain salamander site and early-stage spruce restoration sites, and between four occupied sites and proximal non-detection sites. We found that soil pH was higher and soil moisture was lower at spruce restoration sites compared to the occupied site, and that light intensity, sub-canopy air temperature, and ground-level air temperature were higher in spruce restoration prescriptions with reduced canopy cover. We found that soil moisture was higher at occupied sites compared to proximal non-detection sites, but soil pH was not significantly different. Our study suggests that Cheat Mountain salamanders are associated with low soil pH and high soil moisture, and thus spruce restoration could enhance habitat quality for this species in the long-term.

Sustainable Management of Central Appalachian Red Spruce

Red spruce (Picea rubens) was historically an important and dominant timber species in the central Appalachian mountain range. The tree species is now found in a small fraction of its original home range. Threatened and endangered organisms such as the Cheat Mountain Salamander (Plethodon nettingi) rely on red spruce associated forests for survival. This review provides a background on the history of forest management of red spruce in the central Appalachian region. A meta-analysis was conducted on recent literature (published 2000 or later) of red spruce in the central Appalachian region to highlight key management and conservation concerns. In particular, forest health concerns related to air pollution and climatic stress also are addressed. Approaches to examine the impact of environmental factors on red spruce site productivity are covered. This review also provides sustainable management options for restoration of red spruce in the central Appalachian mountain range.

Climate change experiment suggests divergent responses of tree seedlings in eastern North America’s Acadian Forest Region over the 21st century

In this study, we conducted a controlled experiment to assess the growth and survival of balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.), red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.), and red maple (Acer rubrum L.) seedlings in response to warming, drought, and elevated CO2, as projected under RCP 8.5 for North America’s Acadian Forest Region. In response to warming, only red spruce increased in height; however, this effect varied by CO2 and soil moisture treatments. Under the drought treatment, red spruce biomass was not affected, but mortality increased by two percent. With warming, increases in balsam fir height growth were only detected under certain soil moisture and CO2 conditions. Balsam fir biomass decreased by 24% under drought, while mortality increased by 5 percent. Warming did not improve red maple height growth, but it remained 7-50 times greater than that of the conifers and no mortality was observed. Overall, CO2 enrichment increased height growth of droughted seedlings relative to the ambient treatment, demonstrating an amelioration of the negative drought effect. Balsam fir was the least adapted to warming and drought, while red spruce displayed some positive responses. Although growth of red maple seedlings did not increase with warming, they exhibited greater absolute growth and survival, which suggests red maple may outperform both conifers under a warming climate.

Dendroclimatic Analysis of Central Appalachian Red Spruce in West Virginia

We conducted dendroclimatic analyses and constructed future growth projections for red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) throughout the central Appalachians in the state of West Virginia. This study involved field sampling of 18 sites across red spruce’s range throughout Monongahela National Forest in 6 regions based on pairwise combinations of three latitudinal groups (north, central, and southern latitudes) with two aspects (north and south aspect). Each combination of latitudinal group and aspect was referred to as a landscape cluster. Growth was negatively impacted by high summer temperature stress, but responded favorably to high fall temperatures. The results also suggested that red spruce was likely impacted by the degree of winter harshness in all landscape clusters. In the northern latitudinal landscape clusters, red spruce responded favorably to warm spring temperatures by allowing an early start to the growing season. Growth projections under a future climate change scenario show that future expected increases in mean and maximum monthly temperatures will have negative effects on future spruce growth. The forecasting results suggested that red spruce in northern latitudes on south aspects or central latitudes on north aspects are the landscape clusters that will likely be the most resilient to future climate change. Dendroclimatic results and future growth projections can assist with identifying locations that are most suitable for future red spruce restoration activities.

Helicopter Liming to Help Restore Acidified Forest Soil Productivity

<p>Decades of acid deposition across northeastern North America has caused excess leaching of soil base cations (Ca<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup>) and increases in bioavailable aluminum (Al<sup>3+</sup>) that, in combination, have resulted in widespread decreases in potential forest productivity. Despite major reductions in SO<sub>2</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> emissions since the 1990s, forest soils across the region have shown few signs of recovery from acid deposition impacts and it could take decades or centuries for natural recovery to occur. As a result, affected forests are stressed, less productive, and more prone to climate change-induced damage. Helicopter liming of upland forests may be an effective way to jump-start the soil recovery process. Here we report on early results (one-year) from a helicopter liming trial in Nova Scotia, Canada where 10 tonnes/ha of dolomitic limestone was applied to approximately 8 ha of mature red spruce (<em>Picea rubens</em>) and mature tolerant hardwood (<em>Acer spp</em>. and <em>Betula spp.</em>) forest. Data are presented on (i) the effectiveness of helicopter liming in forests; (ii) the initial chemical response of forest floor organic and mineral soil horizons; and (iii) the initial chemical response of red spruce foliage, maple foliage, and ground vegetation. Preliminary results showed that despite non-uniform lime distribution, there were significant increases (<em>P </em>< 0.05) in Ca<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>, pH, and base saturation (BS), and significant decreases in total acidity in forest floor organic horizons in both the mature red spruce and tolerant hardwood stands; however, there were no significant changes in Al<sup>3+</sup>. The initial chemical response in sugar maple and red spruce foliage showed significant increases in the Ca/Al molar ratio .  The initial response in ground vegetation (Schreber’s moss; <em>Pleurozium schreberi </em>and wood fern; <em>Dryopteris intermedia</em>) showed significant increases in Ca<sup>2+</sup> and decreases in K<sup>+</sup> for both species; however, Schreber’s moss also showed significant increases in Mg<sup>2+</sup> and Al<sup>3+</sup> while wood fern did not. These early chemical results are promising and further support the use of helicopter liming as an effective tool to combat lingering effects from acid deposition in acidified forests.</p>

Anamorphic Site Index Curves for Central Appalachian Red Spruce in West Virginia, USA

Traditional site index curves are frequently produced for shade-intolerant species but are scarce for shade-tolerant species. Red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) can be found in three distinct geographic regions (northern, central, and southern) within the Appalachian Mountains. The one commonly used set of red spruce site index curves is over ninety years old. A definite need exists for a modern, regionally applicable set of site index curves. This research sampled 83 plots randomly located in the central Appalachians of West Virginia. Three sets of anamorphic site index curves were created after careful examination of height models built using Chapman-Richards and Meyer functions. One set of curves was constructed with traditional age height pairs. The second utilized a suppression-corrected age and height pair. The third set examined diameter at breast height (DBH) and height pairs. Fit statistics indicated better performance for the suppression-corrected age–height pair site index and the DBH–height pair site index versus the traditional age–height pair models. Site index conversion equations were also investigated for the red spruce age-corrected site index. Linear regression was used to determine significant geographic and climate variables and the utility of including site index values for red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britton) in the model to predict red spruce site index. Significant models were found for varying combinations of species site index, climate, and geographic variables with R2adj in the range of 0.139–0.455. These new site index curves and conversion equations should provide utility for site productivity estimation and growth and yield modeling while aiding in restoration efforts for this important central Appalachian species.

Characteristics of Red Spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) Encroachment at Two Central Appalachian Heathland Study Areas

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, intensive land use nearly eliminated red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) throughout portions of West Virginia (WV). Red spruce has been slow to regenerate on mountaintop heathland barrens surrounding Canaan Valley, West Virginia (WV), and little is known about the nature of encroachment. Using field surveys, geospatial data, and statistical modelling, the objectives were to 1) characterize and compare red spruce encroachment at two upland heath study areas in West Virginia (Bear Rocks and Cabin Mountain), 2) characterize percent cover of major ground cover types associated with red spruce regeneration sites in order to elucidate biotic interactions, and 3) model the biophysical correlates of red spruce encroachment using geospatial data and statistical modelling. Red spruce count was similar at both study areas, but there were substantially more seedlings and saplings at Cabin Mountain. Modelling revealed a positive relationship between red spruce count and rock cover and a negative relationship between red spruce and stand distance.