Morphometric variation of Middle-American cichlids: Theraps– Paraneetroplus clade (Actinopterygii: Cichliformes: Cichlidae)

This study assesses the patterns of variation in body shape, and relations of morphological similarity among species of the Theraps–Paraneetroplus clade in order to determine whether body shape may be a trait in phylogenetic relations. A total of 208 specimens belonging to 10 species of the Theraps–Paraneetroplus clade were examined. The left side of each specimen was photographed; in each photograph, 27 fixed landmarks were placed to identify patterns in body shape variation. Images were processed by using geometric morphometrics, followed by a phylogenetic principal component analysis. The phylogenetic signal for body shape was then calculated. To determine the relations in morphological similarity, a dendrogram was created using the unweighted pair group method and arithmetic mean values, while a Procrustes ANOVA and post-hoc test were used to evaluate significant differences between species and habitats. We found three morphological groups that differed in body length and depth, head size, and the position of the mouth and eyes. The body shape analysis recovered the morphotypes of seven species, and statistical differences were demonstrated in eight species. Based on traits associated with cranial morphology, Wajpamheros nourissati (Allgayer, 1989) differed the most among the species examined. No phylogenetic signal was found for body shape; this trait shows independence from ancestral relatedness, indicating that there is little congruence between morphological and genetic interspecific patterns. As evidenced by the consistently convergent morphology of the species in the Theraps–Paraneetroplus clade, the diversification of the group is related to an ecological opportunity for habitat use and the exploitation of food resources. Although no phylogenetic signal was detected for body shape, there appears to be an order associated with cranial morphology-based phylogeny. However, it is important to evaluate the intraspecific morphologic plasticity produced by ecological segregation or partitioning of resources. Therefore, future morphological evolutionary studies should consider cranial structures related to the capture and processing of food.

SYNONYMY IN ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

The article addresses the issue of studying noun and adjective synonymy in the Latin anatomical terminology. Different views on the problem of noun and adjective synonymic relations in the anatomical terminology are considered. The complex of Latin nouns-synonyms, their signs and functional specifics are described. Latin terminological units are divided into three groups:1) absolute synonyms; 2) synonyms of varying compatibility; 3) quasi-synonyms. Group 1 includes absolute synonyms which have appeared due to the revision of anatomical nomenclature and are of the similar semantic meaning. Group 2 – nouns, often terminological pairs, having different compatibility in the anatomical terminology. The most numerous Group 3 includes the so-called quasi-synonyms – terms of similar meaning intended for differentiation of various anatomical notions. Meanwhile, it has been found that the signs of Latin quasi-synonyms differentiation in the anatomical terminology may vary greatly and contain an indication on the shape of an object, type of tissue, morphological similarity, object location, etc. Most often used synonymic adjectives are analysed. They have been found to belong to Group 2 of the classification above, since the choice of the term-adjective most commonly depends on the compatibility, that is on the noun it is related to.

A new locality for the rare Guerreran Centipede Snake, Tantilla coronadoi Hartweg, 1944 (Squamata, Colubridae), with comments on morphological variation

We record the third known specimen of Tantilla coronadoi Hartweg, 1944 from Guerrero, Mexico. Our new record extends this species’ distribution by 90 km and to a new Mexican biogeographic province (Balsas Basin). The morphological similarity between this and the two previously known specimens supports the validity of the taxon, and otherwise points to the possible presence of an undescribed taxon on the coast of Guerrero. Additional fieldwork yielding a larger series of this and other infrequently encountered species may enable a better understanding of their distribution, natural history, ecology, and conservation.

Myelin sheath and cyanobacterial thylakoids as concentric multilamellar structures with similar bioenergetic properties

There is a surprisingly high morphological similarity between multilamellar concentric thylakoids in cyanobacteria and the myelin sheath that wraps the nerve axons. Thylakoids are multilamellar structures, which express photosystems I and II, cytochromes and ATP synthase necessary for the light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis. Myelin is a multilamellar structure that surrounds many axons in the nervous system and has long been believed to act simply as an insulator. However, it has been shown that myelin has a trophic role, conveying nutrients to the axons and producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, it is tempting to presume that both membranous structures, although distant in the evolution tree, share not only a morphological but also a functional similarity, acting in feeding ATP synthesized by the ATP synthase to the centre of the multilamellar structure. Therefore, both molecular structures may represent a convergent evolution of life on Earth to fulfill fundamentally similar functions.

The first true millipede—1306 legs long

The name “millipede” translates to a thousand feet (from mille “thousand” and pes “foot”). However, no millipede has ever been described with more than 750 legs. We discovered a new record-setting species of millipede with 1,306 legs, Eumillipes persephone, from Western Australia. This diminutive animal (0.95 mm wide, 95.7 mm long) has 330 segments, a cone-shaped head with enormous antennae, and a beak for feeding. A distant relative of the previous record holder, Illacme plenipes from California, it belongs to a different order, the Polyzoniida. Discovered 60 m below ground in a drill hole created for mineral exploration, E. persephone possesses troglomorphic features; it lacks eyes and pigmentation, and it has a greatly elongated body—features that stand in stark contrast to its closest surface-dwelling relatives in Australia and all other members of its order. Using phylogenomics, we found that super-elongation (> 180 segments) evolved repeatedly in the millipede class Diplopoda. The striking morphological similarity between E. persephone and I. plenipes is a result of convergent evolution, probably for locomotion in similar soil habitats. Discovered in the resource-rich Goldfields-Esperance region and threatened by encroaching surface mining, documentation of this species and conservation of its habitat are of critical importance.

Morphology of the lectotype of Chelodina oblonga Gray 1841 (Testudines: Chelidae)

Uncertainty about taxonomy and nomenclature of the Australian long-necked turtle Chelodina oblonga has ensued since its description by Gray in 1841. This has been due to the general nature of information about provenance of the lectotype specimen and the ostensible morphological similarity of the specimen to another taxon from northern Australia that confused Gray and many subsequent workers. The south-western Australian provenance of the specimen has recently been confirmed by Shea et al. (2020). The present paper provides a detailed consideration of morphology of the specimen and compares it with other specimens available to Gray and to larger series that are now available. The study elucidates morphological aspects that have underlain the history of confusion and it highlights a number of characters that consistently differentiate adults of the relevant taxa. These demonstrate that morphology of the C. oblonga lectotype conforms with the taxon from the south-west of Western Australia, as has also been confirmed by recently published investigations of mitogenomics and historical information about provenance of the lectotype.

The taxonomic status of Cryptobatrachus frogs (Anura: Hemiphractidae) from the Serranía del Perijá

The Neotropical frog genus Cryptobatrachus includes six currently recognized species distributed throughout the northern Andes in Colombia and Venezuela. Cryptobatrachus conditus, C. pedroruizi, and C. remotus were described from the Colombian and Venezuelan slopes of the Serranía del Perijá. Due to the great morphological similarity among these species, we re-assess their taxonomic status based on morphological and molecular data from types, topotypes, and specimens from localities referred to in the original descriptions of these species. Morphometric comparisons showed that all these species are virtually indistinguishable, although some subtle qualitative differences in morphological traits distinguish C. conditus from the other species. Phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences found that C. remotus and C. pedroruizi are not reciprocally monophyletic and exhibit low genetic divergence (< 1 %). Therefore, C. remotus should be considered a junior synonym of C. pedroruizi. This work stresses the importance of comprehensive taxon sampling in poorly explored areas, especially between neighbouring countries.

Exploring the Perceptions of Cognitive and Affective Capabilities of Four, Real, Physical Robots with a Decreasing Degree of Morphological Human Likeness

This paper describes an investigation of student perceptions of the cognitive and affective capabilities of four robots that have a decreasing degree of morphological human likeness. We showed and illustrated the robots (i.e., InMoov, Padbot, Joy Robot and Turtlebot) to 62 students. After showing the students each of these robots, and explaining their main features and capabilities, we administered a fill-in questionnaire to the students. Our main hypothesis was that the perception of a robot’s cognitive and affective capabilities varied in correspondence with their appearance and in particular with their different degree of human likeness. The main results of this study indicate that the scores attributed to the cognitive and emotional capabilities of these robots are not modulated correspondingly to their different morphological similarity to humans. Furthermore, overall, the scores given to all of these robots regarding their ability to explicate mental functions are low, and even lower scores are given to their ability to feel emotions. There is a split between InMoov, the robot which has the highest degree of human likeness, and all of the others. Our results also indicate that: (1) morphological similarity of a robot to humans is not perceived automatically as such by observers, which is not considered a value in itself for the robot; and (2) even at lower levels of robot–human likeness, an uncanny valley effect arises but is quite mitigated by curiosity.

First report of Meloidogyne enterolobii infecting cassava (Manihot esculenta) resulting in root galling damage in Africa

Meloidogyne enterolobii is a highly polyphagous tropical species of root knot nematode. It has been recorded to be causing major damage to a range of economically important crops and is increasingly recorded from new locations. The morphological similarity and overlap of characteristics with other commonly occurring species, especially M. incognita, has confused its diagnosis using morphometrics. Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is an important crop across the tropics, including Africa, where it is among the most important root and tuber crop for food security. Cassava can be heavily infected by root knot nematodes, which can incur heavy production losses. The main species known to affect cassava are M. incognita and M. javanica (Coyne and Affokpon, 2018). With the exception of one report of M. enterolobii morphologically identified from cassava roots during a survey in Brazil (Rosa et al., 2014), there is no record with molecular confirmation of it infecting the crop. In the absence of any molecular or isozyme confirmation, diagnosis of M. enterolobii is difficult to determine. In the current study, the species responsible for substantial galling damage (Fig. 1A) on several cassava roots growing in Ibadan, Nigeria (7°22′39″ N; 3°54′21″ E) were diagnosed. DNA isolated from juveniles recovered using a modified Baermann method (Hooper, 1986) from these roots was used for PCR amplification of the mitochondrial Nad5 using primer pair, NAD5F2 (5’-TATTTTTTGTTTGAGATATATTAG-3’) and NAD5R1 (5’-CGTGAATCTTGATTTTCCATTTTT-3’). The 515 bp PCR DNA product was sequenced on both strands (GenBank Accession No. MW965454) and found to be 100% identical to M. enterolobii with those in the DNA sequence database (KU372358, KU372359) (Janssen et al., 2016; Kolombia et al., 2017). In addition, M. incognita was also recovered from the galled roots and identified using the same primers (GenBank Accession No. MW965455) indicating a combined species infection (Fig. 2). Cultures of M. enterolobii, developed from single egg masses were maintained on tomato plants and used to assess infection on cassava in 10 L pots filled with steam sterilized loam soil in the screenhouse. Cassava cv. IITA-TMS-IBA070593 cuttings planted in June, 2018 and repeated in April, 2019 were inoculated with 1,000 juveniles per pot at three weeks after planting, and then maintained for four months before quantifying the nematode densities in both roots and soil. Nematode reproduction factor (RF), calculated from total nematode densities (n=8) from soil and roots was as high as 44.3, compared to uninoculated controls. Molecular diagnostics of M. enterolobii, as above, confirms unequivocally the host status of cassava to this nematode. This study reports for the first time the infection of cassava by M. enterolobii under field conditions in Africa and for the first time demonstrates the host suitability of cassava to this nematode (Fig. 1B). M. enterolobii is among the most commonly occurring root-knot nematode species in West Africa (dos Santos et al., 2019). It is therefore anticipated that M. enterolobii has long been infecting, especially in West Africa, but has been overlooked due to its morphological similarity with M. incognita. Given the high reproductive ability of M. enterolobii on cassava and its highly aggressive nature on a range of crops, it is likely that it is causing, or will result in, high levels of losses on cassava in Africa.

A karyotype study in two fish species belonging to Genus Neolissochilus found in Meghalaya, India

The karyomorphological study of two species of Mahseer belonging to the genus Neolissochilus, namely Neolissochilus hexagonolepis and N. hexastichus were carried out. The study revealed the basic chromosome number in both the Masheer species was observed to be 100. However, the karyotype formula number varied among the species. N. hexagonolepis had a diploid chromosome number of 42 metacentric (m), 20 submetacentric (sm), 8 subtelocentric (st) and 30 telocentric (t) and N. hexastichus had a karyotypic formula of 32 metacentric (m), 22 submetacentric (sm), 4 subtelocentric (st) and 42 telocentric (t). This finding removed taxonomic confusion due to the differences in the chromosome number, the morphology of the chromosomes and chromosome formula between the two fish species of the genus and helped in distinctive and unblemished identification of the two species belonging to the genus Neolissochilus from Meghalaya, though they have a morphological similarity.