The state and violence in Kurdistan: A conceptual framework

This article interrogates the use of state-organised violence against the Kurds by focusing on four major cases of mass violence conducted in the early republican era in the 1920s and 1930s. Through the examination of the key processes and major policies, the study explains state violence as historically and causally related to the logic and imperatives of imposing and maintaining direct rule over the predominantly Kurdish-inhabited territories in post-Ottoman Turkey. To better understand the nature of state violence, I present three mutually reinforcing and interconnected conceptual pathways: integral colonisation, incorporation by nation-destruction and colonial violence. The paper argues that the strategies of state formation and expansion into Kurdistan along with the coercive policies of creating a unitary and homogenous Turkish nation took the form of integral colonisation. This process, while laying the foundations for the politics of incorporation by nation-destruction, co-existed with and informed by the use of colonial violence. Disaggregated into ideological, ethnocidal and genocidal violence, colonial violence is thus referred to as underlying mechanism behind the recurrent use of state violence in Kurdistan. Abstract in Kurmanji Dewlet û şidet li Kurdistanê: Çarçoveyeke têgînî Bi vekolîna çar mînakên sereke yên tundiya girseyî ku di destpêka heyama komarî, yanî deheyên 1920ê û 1930ê de rû daye, ev nivîsar li ser bikaranîna şideta dewletê ya li dijî Kurdan radiweste. Di ber nirxandina pêvajoyên esasî û siyasetên bingehîn re, ez şideta dewletê wek diyardeyeke weha rave dikim ku, ji aliyê dîrok û egerên wê ve, têkildara mantiq û pêdiviyên ferzkirin û ragirtina hukmdariya rasterast a dewleta Tirkiya pişt-osmanî ye li ser erdên ku pirî nifûsa wan Kurd in. Ji bo ku çawaniya şideta dewletê bêhtir were fêmkirin, ez sê rêbazên têgînî pêşberî xwendevanan dikim ku girêdayî hev in û hev du jî xurt dikin : mêtingeriya tevahî, daxilkirin bi riya xirakirina neteweyî û şideta mêtinger. Di meqaleyê de, ez piştgiriya vî fikrî didim ku stratejiyên sazkirin û berfirehkirina dewletê ya li Kurdistanê, li gel polîtîkayên zordar ên avakirina neteweyeke tirk a yekpare û mitecanis, bi şikla mêtingeriya tevahî hatin meşandin. Vê pêvajoyê hem bingeha siyasetên daxilkirin bi riya xirakirina neteweyî danî, hem jî tev li bikaranîna şideta mêtinger hat xebitandin û vê şidetê bandor jî lê kiriye. Li nav şideta komkujî, nijadkujî û îdeolojîk dabeşbûyî, şideta mêtinger bi vî awayî wek alava binyadî ya bikaranîna mukerrer a şideta dewletê li Kurdistanê tê nîşandan. Abstract in Sorani Dewllet û tundutîjî le kurdistan: çwarçêweyekî têgeyiştin Ebistrakt: be serincdan leser çwar dosîyey gewrey tudutîjî ke leseretay qonaxî komarîda, le deyekanî 1920 û 1930 piyadekiran, em witare le bekarhênanî ew tundutîjîye ke dewllet le dijî kurd rêkîxistuwe. Twêjîneweke le rêgay hellsengandinî prose binerretîyekan û polesîye serekîyekan, ewe rûndekatewe ke tundutîjî dewllet wek mêjû û hokar peyweste be lojîk û binemakanî sepandin û parastinî hukmrranî rastewxo le turkyay post-'usmanîda beser ew herêmey ke zorîney danîştwanî kurdin. Bo baştir têgeyîştin le sruştî tundutîjî dewllet, min sê rêçkey têgeyîştinî yekgir û pêkewe grêdraw amade dekem: kollonîzekirdnî tewawkarî, girtinexo le rêgay wêrankirdnî-netewe we tundutîjî kolloniyallî. Witareke argumêntî ewe dekat ke stratîjî pêkhênanî dewllet û firawankirdnî bo kurdistan hawkat legell siyasetî serkutkerane bo pêkhênanî netewey turkî yekgirtû û çunyek forrmî kolloniyalîzey tewawkarî wergirtuwe. Em proseye, le katêkda berdî binaxey siyasetî girtnexo le rêgay wêrankirdnî-netewe, hawkat bû legell we denasrêtewe be bekarhênanî tundutîjî kollonyallî. Be polênkirdnî bo tundutîjîyekanî aydiyolojî, etnosayd û cînosayd, bemcore tundutîjî kollonyallî amajeye bo bûnî wek mîkanîzmêkî binerretî pişt bekarhênanî dûbarey tundutîjî dewlletî le kurdistan. Abstract in Zazaki The State and Violence in Kurdistan: A Conceptual Framework This article interrogates the use of state-organised violence against the Kurds by focusing on four major cases of mass violence conducted in the early republican era in the 1920s and 1930s. Through the examination of the key processes and major policies, the study explains state violence as historically and causally related to the logic and imperatives of imposing and maintaining direct rule over the predominantly Kurdish-inhabited territories in post-Ottoman Turkey. To better understand the nature of state violence, I present three mutually reinforcing and interconnected conceptual pathways: integral colonisation, incorporation by nation-destruction and colonial violence. The paper argues that the strategies of state formation and expansion into Kurdistan along with the coercive policies of creating a unitary and homogenous Turkish nation took the form of integral colonisation. This process, while laying the foundations for the politics of incorporation by nation-destruction, co-existed with and informed by the use of colonial violence. Disaggregated into ideological, ethnocidal and genocidal violence, colonial violence is thus referred to as underlying mechanism behind the recurrent use of state violence in Kurdistan.

A SHORT HISTORY OF PALEONTOLOGY IN TURKEY, PART I: FROM THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO THE COLLAPSE OF OTTOMAN TURKEY

ABSTRACT Modern paleontology in Turkey appeared in the early nineteenth century, together with the first modern geological studies. The fossils collected in these studies were initially used to establish biostratigraphy and to make the first geological maps of the country. Paleontologists were involved in these studies from the beginning; the earliest identifications of new animal and plant taxa from Turkey occurred in the same century along with the detailed descriptions of the rich and diverse Turkish fossil record. Aside from the academic studies, some paleontologists also took part in the economic side by contributing to stratigraphic analysis of coal beds or participating in petroleum exploration. All these pioneering works on the geology and paleontology of Turkey were done by foreigners; however, the outcomes of this newly introduced science were quickly appreciated by Ottoman Turkey. During the middle of the nineteenth century, the first text mentioning geological processes was written by the head scholar of the Imperial School of Military Engineering, while the first geology classes began to be taught under the Imperial Medical School in Istanbul, in which the first natural history collection was also established. Unfortunately, not a single original study in paleontology was produced by Ottoman citizens, with the notable exception of an Austrian immigrant of Hungarian descent, possibly because of a lack of a real interest in earth sciences.

Exegeting Sūra al Fātiḥa for the Masses: Bediüzzaman Said Nursi and Haji Muḥammad Saʿīd bin ʿUmar

Purpose: This article considers exegetical perspectives on the best known Sūra of the Qur’ān from two exegetes who lived in diverse contexts in the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Caliphate. Bediüzzaman Said Nursi is arguably the most influential theologian to emerge from in Ottoman Turkey in its long history. Haji Muḥammad Saʿīd bin ʿUmar, by contrast, enjoys a local reputation as a scholar in the Malay-Indonesian region but is unknown outside of that area. Methodology: This research is based on a comparative analysis of the exegesis of both scholars on Sūra al-Fātiḥa, exploring the techniques they used to reach ordinary Muslims with their exegesis, not just highly educated Muslims. Findings: Said Nursi and Muḥammad Saʿīd bin ʿUmar came from quite different backgrounds and contexts. Moreover, their exegetical styles were fundamentally different, with the former’s being more thematic and the latter’s being more literalist. Nevertheless, each succeeded in producing exegesis that reached the masses, thereby meeting their overall goals of reinforcing the commitment to faith and dynamic spirit of Muslims in their respective contexts. Originality: This research is original in various ways. First, comparative studies of Said Nursi and Malay-language exegetes are few in number. Second, the identification of similarities in the results of studies on exegesis despite the use of different methods requires greater scholarly attention. This article should stimulate interest in further studies on the matter.

ԿՈՍՏԱՆԴՆՈՒՊՈԼՍԻ ՀԱՅՈՑ ՊԱՏՐԻԱՐՔՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԵՎ ԷՋՄԻԱԾՆԻ ԿԱԹՈՂԻԿՈՍՈՒԹՅԱՆ ՓՈԽՀԱՐԱԲԵՐՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՆԵՐԸ XVIII ԴԱՐՈՒՄ

In Armenian history of the 18th century the elucidation of relationships between Constantinople Patriarchate and Etchmiadzin Catholicosate is of pivotal significance. When the Constantinople patriarchate was headed by Hovhannes Kolot and Hakob Nalian (from 1715 up to the beginning of the 1770s) its standing and influence increased among the priesthood of the Mother See of Etchmiadzin. The two essential institutions were under the jurisdiction of Ottoman Turkey and Persia and it was in this period that the internal and external policies were changing constantly in these countries. The Etchmiadzin Catholicosate, being under adverse political circumstances ceded its influence to the rivaling Constantinople Patriarchate that was in more favorable conditions. Since Karapet Ulentsi’s election (1726) up to the rule of the Catholicos Simeon Yerevantsi the Constantinople Patriarchate managed to take control over Etchmiadzin (new regulations for appointing Catholicosses which entailed immediate mediation of the Constantinople Patriarchate, supervising the financial, administrative activities of the Catholicosate, etc.) The situation drastically changed when Simeon Yerevantsi and Ghukas Karnetsi became the head of the Etchmiadzin Catholicosate (the second half of the 18th century). It was then that the Armenians of Diaspora realized that it was necessary to recover the traditional standing and influence of Etchmiadzin Catholicosate.

Pengaruh Penaklukan Konstantinopel Terhadap Kemajuan Turki Usmani Tahun 1453 ( Kajian Politik Ekspansi Sultan Muhammad Al-Fatih)

The purpose of this study is (1). To find out about the conditions of the ottoman turks before conquering Constantinople (2). To find out about the political progress and the ottoman military in the time of Sultan Muhammad Al-Fatih (3). To find out the influence of constantinople’s conquest on the progress of Ottoman turks in 1453. This type of research is descriptive qualitative, and using the library research method one method of data processing which is done by systematically compiling so that general conclusions can be obtained. The result of this study was the influence of Constantinople’s conquest of the progress of Ottoman Turkey in 1453. The city of Constantinople as a country that is so strong lies in the territory of Byzantium. Efforts to conquer this region continue to be carried out from the time Umayyah, Abbasiyah, arrived at the time of Ottoman rule. The conquest could be carried out on the 20th of Jumadil early 857 H/ mei 291453 M, at 1.00 am, Tuesday, the main attack was launched. The mujahideen were ordered to raise the voice of the takbir while attacking the city. The population of Constantinople was at the height of its fear that morning. Mujahideen who are determined to fight in the cause of Allah, so brave to invade the crusaders in the city. In the end the city of Constantinople could be conquered by Sultan Muhammad Al-Fatih with his troops. It nrought great influence to the Ottoman Turks in the field of military political, economy, governance, of religious and cultural science, and expanding to Europe.

TASHKENT THE PRINCE THE FATE OF UZBEKISTAN NATIONAL ARCHIVE IN THE DOCUMENTS

This article describes the history of Sultan Muhammad Pahlavi which lived in the 19th century. In particular, archival documents show us his migration from Central Asia to Ottoman Turkey and his activities in some regions there. New finding of archival documents about Sultan Muhammad refer to him as the «Prince of Tashkent», that is «Khanzada» and indicate that he was a descendant of Yunus Khan (1416–1487), who ruled in Tashkent (1485–1487). The article analyzes the documents of Sultan Muhammad’s arrival from Ottoman Turkey to his native Central Asian cities. It was concluded that most of the archival documents found in his possession were related to his activities in Turkey.