Understanding the sex inequality in childlessness: an approach using Swedish register data

In most countries, men are more likely to be childless than women. Understanding how this inequality arises is important given the significance of parenthood for individuals’ lives. The objective of this study was to explore how three prominent explanations for sex inequalities in childlessness relate to the Sex Gap in Childlessness (SGC) in Sweden. The three explanations examined were sex ratio imbalance (more men than women), mismeasurement of fatherhood (inequalities in registration) and partnership differences (inequality in multi-partner fertility). Administrative register data for cohorts born in 1945–1974 were used. The population was restricted to men and women who were born in Sweden or arrived prior to the age of 15, and all registered childbearing partnerships were examined. To explore the possible significance of the three explanations, counter-factual standardization was used. Of the three explanations examined, the population sex ratio had the largest positive impact on the SGC, while multi-partner fertility had a negative impact. The results show that inequalities in the sex ratio can explain about 20–34% of the SGC depending on cohort. Inequalities in registration of fathers explain about 9–24% of the SGC depending on cohort. Finally, results show that women are slightly more likely to have multiple partners, and that this behaviour has a substantial minimizing effect on the SGC (minimizing it by 6–65%). To the authors’ knowledge this was the first paper to estimate the scope of the impacts of these three mechanisms on the SGC. Differences in multi-partner fertility have in many instances been used as an explanation for men’s higher childlessness. This study shows that women have slightly more childbearing partners than men, and that this actually leads to a smaller SGC in the studied population.

Female Scarcity and Natal Dispersal Differences Between Sexes Among Bellbirds (Anthornis melanura)

<p>Sex ratio imbalances in wild bird populations have been a challenge for wildlife managers for decades. Differences between sexes during natal dispersal has long been thought to promote sex ratio imbalances. Natal dispersal distances may differ between sexes because of competition for food and space, or intrasexual competition and aggression. I investigated natal dispersal and intrasexual competition as mechanisms for a sex ratio imbalance in a small, translocated population of a New Zealand honeyeater, the bellbird (Anthornis melanura) in the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary- Zealandia, Wellington, New Zealand. I analysed long term records of population size and structure to document annual variation in sex ratios since the reintroduction of bellbirds to Zealandia. Radio telemetry was used to track the 2008/2009 cohort of bellbirds for five months after fledging to observe movements and distances travelled from their hatching location. Observations at a supplemental food source that was used by both adults and fledglings, were used to study intrasexual competition and aggression. Dispersal distances did not differ between the sexes for any of the measurement types used. Males did however significantly dominate the use of a supplemental food source and were significantly more aggressive around this food source, which is most likely responsible for the lower feeding rate among females. Therefore, I conclude that the sex ratio imbalance in the bellbird population in Zealandia may not result from a difference in natal dispersal, but from males dominating a supplemental food source, raising their population and fitness over that of females.</p>

Female Scarcity and Natal Dispersal Differences Between Sexes Among Bellbirds (Anthornis melanura)

<p>Sex ratio imbalances in wild bird populations have been a challenge for wildlife managers for decades. Differences between sexes during natal dispersal has long been thought to promote sex ratio imbalances. Natal dispersal distances may differ between sexes because of competition for food and space, or intrasexual competition and aggression. I investigated natal dispersal and intrasexual competition as mechanisms for a sex ratio imbalance in a small, translocated population of a New Zealand honeyeater, the bellbird (Anthornis melanura) in the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary- Zealandia, Wellington, New Zealand. I analysed long term records of population size and structure to document annual variation in sex ratios since the reintroduction of bellbirds to Zealandia. Radio telemetry was used to track the 2008/2009 cohort of bellbirds for five months after fledging to observe movements and distances travelled from their hatching location. Observations at a supplemental food source that was used by both adults and fledglings, were used to study intrasexual competition and aggression. Dispersal distances did not differ between the sexes for any of the measurement types used. Males did however significantly dominate the use of a supplemental food source and were significantly more aggressive around this food source, which is most likely responsible for the lower feeding rate among females. Therefore, I conclude that the sex ratio imbalance in the bellbird population in Zealandia may not result from a difference in natal dispersal, but from males dominating a supplemental food source, raising their population and fitness over that of females.</p>

Development of the India Patriarchy Index: Validation and Testing of Temporal and Spatial Patterning

While existing indices of gender equality measure the role of women’s status and position, they inadequately contextualize the broader construct of patriarchy, a social system that underlies many gender inequitable practices. An index capturing patriarchy may afford increased understanding of this social system, and may serve to complement other gender equality indices. This paper involves the development and testing of a novel composite measure, the India Patriarchy Index, to quantify the social and ideological construct of patriarchy using empirical data on family structure and gender roles. Using data from India’s National Family Health Survey, we develop an India Patriarchy Index to measure gendered social positioning in families based on sex by age, patrilocality, sex ratio imbalance among offspring, and gendered economic roles. Psychometric testing demonstrates good internal reliability and construct validity of this index, with validity indicated by its association with three gender equality indices used in India. Spatial and temporal analyses further indicate much state-level variation in India Patriarchy Index scores as well as slow change on this indicator over time, based on time trend analyses from 1992–93 to 2015–16. Results demonstrate the utility of the India Patriarchy Index to measure and track gender equality progress in India.

CHILD SEX RATIO IMBALANCE AND CROSS REGIONAL BRIDES: A GENDERED PARADOX IN HARYANA AND UTTAR PRADESH

A deeply rooted cultural preference for sons has led to scarcity of girls in states such as Haryana,Punjab,Uttar Pradesh and, Rajasthan. Gender-based violence, sex-selective abortions, discriminatory practices against girls and expensive dowries are common in these areas.The gender biases have deprived women of their basic rights to education,mobility, choice of partner,employment,ownership of property/land and so on.This limits their overall development and growth. Advancement in new reproductive technology has exacerbated the issue of gender biased sex selection or sex selective abortion, thus resulting in a significantly skewed sex ratio. A skewed ratio of women to men has led to brides being 'purchased' from economically marginalized states like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal. As a result, these migrant brides are forced to negotiate with 'new' cultural and social situations.The paper attempts to understand the struggle, exploitation, and abuse experienced by these 'migrant brides' residing in three villages, namely Pipli village in Kharkhoda Tehsil of Sonipat District,Deroli Ahir village in Narnaul Tehsil of Mahendragarh District and Gurana village in Baraut Tehsil of Bahgpat district.

Why Migrant Workers in China Continue to Build Large Houses in Home Villages: A Case Study of a Migrant-Sending Village in Anhui

This article uses a case study of a migrant-sending village in Anhui to understand why migrant workers build large houses in home villages. The rural sex-ratio imbalance at marriageable ages, heightened by the rural-urban migration of women, has led to an increase in the negotiating power of young women in the rural marriage market. Young men’s families construct large houses to attract potential brides and facilitate patrilocal residence. The lack of maternity leave and affordable childcare in migrant destination cities encourages female migrants to return to the countryside to give birth to and raise children. Large rural houses offer young female migrants comfortable places to live and privacy when they cohabitate with their parents-in-law, who help them raise their children. Although most new-generation migrant workers do not have agricultural experience, rural areas are important to this generation because they provide affordable housing and family support.

Richer but Not Happier: Four Areas of Reforms in the Next Phase of Development in China

Despite rapid economic growth, the proportion of people who report to be happy has declined and male adult mortality has increased in the past decade in China. This is a case of immiserizing growth—growth that comes with a lower level of welfare. We explore several potential causes of immiserizing growth: rising inequality, corruption, air pollution, and competitive pressure. Increasing marriage market competition due to a rise in the sex ratio imbalance seems to be a leading contributing factor. Facing intensive marriage market competition, parents with sons have to work harder and take more risks, which in turn diminishes happiness. The gain in utility as a result of additional income growth is not sufficient to offset the utility loss in the process of pursuing wealth

People in Their Environment

This chapter examines the demography of ancient Greece from the Archaic to the Hellenistic periods, focusing on the role of people in the development of the ecological environment. It first considers the ecological framework, taking into account the constraints imposed by topography and soils as well as the variability of the climate and vegetation. It then describes the demographic model of the world of the Greek city-states before taking up the question of the size of the population and its evolution, fertility and mortality rates, demographic structures and the potential for expansion, and sex ratio imbalance, birth control, and infanticide. It also discusses the population dynamics of the Greek city-states and concludes with an analysis of the relationship between the ecological environment and population, with emphasis on the variability of climate and whether ancient Greece experienced demographic crises and famine.