A mental models approach for defining explainable artificial intelligence

Background Wide-ranging concerns exist regarding the use of black-box modelling methods in sensitive contexts such as healthcare. Despite performance gains and hype, uptake of artificial intelligence (AI) is hindered by these concerns. Explainable AI is thought to help alleviate these concerns. However, existing definitions for explainable are not forming a solid foundation for this work. Methods We critique recent reviews on the literature regarding: the agency of an AI within a team; mental models, especially as they apply to healthcare, and the practical aspects of their elicitation; and existing and current definitions of explainability, especially from the perspective of AI researchers. On the basis of this literature, we create a new definition of explainable, and supporting terms, providing definitions that can be objectively evaluated. Finally, we apply the new definition of explainable to three existing models, demonstrating how it can apply to previous research, and providing guidance for future research on the basis of this definition. Results Existing definitions of explanation are premised on global applicability and don’t address the question ‘understandable by whom?’. Eliciting mental models can be likened to creating explainable AI if one considers the AI as a member of a team. On this basis, we define explainability in terms of the context of the model, comprising the purpose, audience, and language of the model and explanation. As examples, this definition is applied to regression models, neural nets, and human mental models in operating-room teams. Conclusions Existing definitions of explanation have limitations for ensuring that the concerns for practical applications are resolved. Defining explainability in terms of the context of their application forces evaluations to be aligned with the practical goals of the model. Further, it will allow researchers to explicitly distinguish between explanations for technical and lay audiences, allowing different evaluations to be applied to each.

Factors influencing entrepreneurial team (ET) performance in education and childcare franchise: case of Malaysia

Purpose Over these recent years, increasing studies have found a higher propensity of firms founded by entrepreneurial teams (ETs) for continuous operation and high performance, compared to firms single-handedly created by an entrepreneur. In spite of the emerging significance of ETs, the number of related studies remains inadequately low, particularly within the context of franchise firms. Therefore, this study aims to explore the factors that influence the ETs’ performance in the Malaysian education and childcare franchise system using a qualitative approach. Design/methodology/approach Qualitative Research Strategy has been adopted and 27 ET leaders participated in this study to get the holistic view of factors influencing the entrepreneurial team (ET) performance in education and childcare franchise in Malaysia. Findings The results highlight the factors (team leadership, team training, team diversity, team processes, team confidence and team mental models) influencing the entrepreneurial team (ET) performance in education and childcare franchise in Malaysia. Originality/value The present study may help to provide useful information to policy makers, which enable them to formulate the strategies franchise ETs performance in Malaysia. As this study provides insight of factors that have an impact on ET performance. A best practice model for education and childcare franchise ETs’ performance is designed.

The congruence of mental models in entrepreneurial teams – implications for performance and satisfaction in teams operating in an emerging economy

Purpose The paper aims to explore the relationship between the congruence of mental models held by the members of entrepreneurial teams operating in an emerging economy (Poland) and entrepreneurial outcomes (performance and satisfaction). Design/methodology/approach The data obtained from 18 nascent and 20 established entrepreneurial teams was analysed to answer hypotheses. The research was quantitative and was conducted using an online questionnaire. Data was collected from each of the teams at two stages. Members of entrepreneurial teams were surveyed independently, which allowed measuring the congruence of their mental models pertaining to running a venture. Findings Findings reveal that team members’ mental model congruence is significantly related to financial performance and members’ satisfaction in the case of established entrepreneurial teams. However, in the case of nascent teams, there is no relationship between analysed variables. Practical implications Implications for theory and practice are offered with a special emphasis on entrepreneurship education. The concept of team mental model congruence is proposed to be included in training of nascent entrepreneurial teams, experienced companies and students. Originality/value The concept of team mental models investigated by the authors has been underexplored in entrepreneurship research. Results indicate that at least in some entrepreneurial teams, team mental models’ congruence is related to obtained outcomes. The paper proposes that principles of effectuation and causation can serve as the lens through which the mental model pertaining to running a venture can be analysed. It allows expanding studies on the congruence of team mental models in entrepreneurial teams beyond the strategic consensus.

How teams perform under emergent and dynamic situations: the roles of mental models and backup behaviors

Purpose The purpose of this study is to evaluate the roles of team mental models (TMMs) and backup behaviors for teams operating under emergent and dynamic situations. Specifically, the authors used a biased-corrected bootstrapping approach to assess the mediation effects of backup behaviors between the similarity of TMMs and team performance. Design/methodology/approach TMMs are a representation of the common understanding and beliefs in terms of task requirements or teamwork skills among different team members. It has wide implementations in various teams that are required to adapt quickly to an emergent and dynamic environment. The construct of TMMs has been studied extensively in previous literature, indicating a strong relationship between TMMs and team performance. However, how TMMs affect team performance under emergent and dynamic situations is only partially understood. Findings The findings of this study suggest that the similarity of task-focused mental models positively affects team performance through the mediation effects of backup behaviors. In contrast, the similarity of team-focused mental models does not positively affect backup behaviors and team performance. Originality/value This study contributes to the TMMs literature by investigating how teams perform in an emergent and dynamic environment. It not only provides theoretical support to the similarity of TMMs–backup behaviors–team performance relationships but has important implications in terms of team training and decision-making for teams operating under such conditions.

Back and Forth: Using Conversation Analysis to Explore Dialogues of Sharedness of Mental Models

Shared mental models have been shown to enhance team performance. However, research has not observed the different types of sharedness of mental models that may uniquely impact the design process. Therefore, this study examines the types of sharedness of mental models that occur in design teams using Conversation Analysis on data collected from two design teams that performed activities in the early design process in a controlled lab environment. Designers were asked to develop an agreed upon list of ranked design principles, and then generate one or two solutions using the list. These design activities allow for the examination of the varying ways that designers share knowledge, negotiate, and reach understanding. Through our analysis, we identify characteristics of conversation that designers used to build shared understanding. Our results also show how team mental models are built from patterns of conversation that are evident during open-ended and unstructured design discussions. This work sets a foundation for future research to gain a deeper understanding of how designer mental models are shared in unstructured conversations that take place during design practice.

Team reflections, team mental models and team performance over time

Purpose Although previous research proved positive impacts of team reflection on team outcomes, especially team performance and innovation, there are only a few insights in to which factors (mediators) account for these positive effects and over what period these effects unfold (temporal effects). To close this gap, this paper aims to investigate the direct effects of team reflection on team performance over time, as well as indirect effects because of the development of similar and accurate team mental models to explain this relationship. Design/methodology/approach Within a longitudinal experimental study on 22 student project teams working on a complex problem-solving task, the effects of repeated team reflection interventions on the development of team performance and team mental models over six measuring times were analysed. Findings Results show that team reflections caused significant increases in team performance and team mental models over time. Results also provide evidence that team mental models’ quality mediates the effects of team reflections on team performance. Research limitations/implications The results are interesting for both research fields, team reflection and team mental models, as the findings indicate the merits of recurrent reflection for improving team mental models’ quality. Practical implications For organisational practice, the question of how reflection processes can be deliberately triggered in teams and effectively integrated into the daily routine should be considered. Originality/value The findings accentuate the role of team reflections for improving team performance team mental models over time. By continuous reflecting teams increase awareness and insights into effective team processes and strategies (i.e. shared and accurate team mental models), which lead to better performance.

Trust and team coordination in critical situations

In this paper I explore the process of team coordination. I propose a model by which team coordination emerges as a function of team mental models and team trust. Furthermore, I introduce a hierarchical approach to team mental models, and propose a framework that provides a better understanding of team processes and opens new avenues of research in the area of team cognition. I conclude with implications for future research and practice.