informal system
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2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (24) ◽  
pp. 11775
Author(s):  
Woo Sung Jang ◽  
Young Chul (Robert) Kim

In requirement engineering, an important issue is how to transform and tailor the informal system requirements of users or customers into more structured specification documents, which are then used by the software developers. In addition, it is both challenging and necessary to redefine and analyze, from ill-defined or unknown requirements, specifications correctly and automatically generate test cases with them. There are few kinds of research in Korea for automatically reducing requirement complexity and developing test cases of the Korean language-based requirement specifications. Why do we need requirement simplification? Requirement complexity causes analyzers less readability and low understandability. To do this, we propose the automatic cause-effect generation via a requirement simplification mechanism of informal requirement specifications with the Korean language, which works the following procedures: (1) the automatic simplification of informal requirement sentences, (2) the generation of Condition/Conjunction/Clause Tree (C3Tree) Model, (3) and the Cause-effect generation.


2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (11) ◽  
pp. 692
Author(s):  
Katarina Nilfyr ◽  
Jonas Aspelin ◽  
Annika Lantz-Andersson

The international trend of positioning the preschool as a pre-academic learning environment is challenging for preschool teachers, as it necessitates a balance between emotionally supportive interaction and goal-oriented learning instruction. However, previous research suggests that the complexities of such interactions need to be further studied. This article contributes by presenting a very detailed exploration of how social adaptation is pursued in a goal-oriented documentation activity. The study used a micro-sociological approach, characterized by the careful analysis of verbal and nonverbal interactions. Two research questions were raised: (1) How is social adaptation pursued in verbal and nonverbal interactions in preschool teacher–child relationships during a goal-oriented activity? and (2) How can social adaptation in the preschool context be understood in terms of a “deference-emotion system”? Interactions between a teacher and child in two video-recorded episodes were transcribed and sequentially analyzed thoroughly. The findings suggest that the interactions were regulated through an informal system of social sanctions, in which nonverbal signs of deference played a key role. The interaction was shown to be embedded in an institutional context that advocates goal-oriented instruction, thus highlighting the challenge of preschool teaching in attempting to promote goal-oriented processes while simultaneously maintaining respectful, caring teacher–child relationships.


Author(s):  
Irfan Ullah ◽  
Muhammad Adeel Khan

Effective provision of justice remains essential for preventing wartime grievances into feuds and mass conflict in strengthening the state and improving accountability. It can lead to quick and cheaper resolution of disputes. This research focuses on evaluating the informal system of governance and justice delivery system in Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It evaluated the institutions of justice delivery (both formal and informal) in terms of structure, functions, and efficiency. The study reveals that informal mechanisms of dispute resolution is still preferred at large, despite the availability of formal institutions for this purpose. Majority of the respondents showed distrust on the formal institutions of justice delivery and dispute resolution across the sample population. This mistrust has been related to the ineffectiveness in terms of lengthy process of handling disputes of various types and the involved financial cost. Shariah and custom remained the preferred type of law to be adopted as compared to state law/statute for dispute resolution. The study concludes that state institutions of justice delivery and dispute resolution should work in collaboration with the informal institutions for effective provision of dispute resolution and justice delivery. A mixed method approach of depth interviews focus group and household survey is employed for collecting primary data.


2021 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Tixiang Zhou ◽  
Tinghua Liu ◽  
Fengjuan Kou

As a typical informal system, social capital plays an important supplementary role in China’s economic transition period. Informal finance based on commercial credit plays a role in the economic cycle. However, there is currently a lack of literature to directly examine the impact of social capital on the use of commercial credit by enterprises. This article aims to systematically sort out the theoretical development of social capital on commercial credit, which mainly includes the definition of social capital, its effects, the influencing factors of commercial credit, and the summary of the existing research results of social capital on commercial credit. It is hoped that this literature review will provide guidance for future research.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rember Pinedo-Taco ◽  
Percy Rolando Egusquiza-Bayona ◽  
Dylan Anderson-Berens

In the Andean region of Peru, the predominant production system for potatoes is family farming, oriented towards self-consumption, seed provision, and the sale of surplus production. Labor force activities for land preparation, sowing, maintenance, harvest and postharvest are under the responsibility of the family and eventually they hire farm laborers, when parcels are of a considerable size. Approximately 95% of the cultivated surface of potato crops is located in the high Andean zone, from 3000 to 4200 meters above sea level (masl), employing native varieties of tuber seeds and modern seeds introduced to production systems in the past 50 years. Potato systems in Peru, like the majority of underdeveloped countries, are characterized by the co-existence of formal and informal systems. Formal systems prioritize production and commercialization of seeds of just a few varieties positioned in modern markets which are regulated and accredited by a certification body according to the current legislation, while in the informal system the guarantee of seed quality falls under the responsibility of the very producers and users of those seeds.


Author(s):  
Jojo Yorke ◽  
Emmanuel Yobo-Addo ◽  
Kanwardeep Singh ◽  
Ali Muzzam ◽  
Imran Khan ◽  
...  

Background: Studies have consistently demonstrated low rates of adoption of Advance Care Planning in the community. Methods: We studied Medicare enrollees age 65 and over and non-Medicare patients using a cross-sectional survey undertaken in February and March 2019 using questionnaires completed by out-patients attending a teaching hospital clinic in East Tennessee USA. We evaluated patient knowledge, attitudes, satisfaction and aspirations towards Advance Care Planning. Results: 141 properly completed questionnaires were used. All Medicare enrollees were aware of Advanced Care Planning compared to 43% in the non-Medicare group. 70% of the Medicare enrollees and 94% of non-Medicare group were not ready to complete a written Advanced Care Plan. Of the respondents, 46% had appointed spouses, 24% adult children, 11% siblings, 10% parents, 3.6% friends and 1.2% aunts as their surrogate medical decision makers. 41% agreed that they were satisfied with their current advance care planning arrangements. This research identified that individual’s knowledge, attitudes and aspirations influenced the adoption of Advance Care. Conclusions: Patients have adopted the Advance Care Plan concept but have modified it to reduce their concerns by using family and loved ones to convey their wishes instead of filling the required legal documents. Clinicians could improve this informal system and increase the observability of the treatment choices including the use of video and web-based tools.


Author(s):  
Igor V. Kallin

The article examines the activities of three political institutions (the Council of People’s Commissars, the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee) of the Soviet state from the point of view of their superiority in the political arena at the time of the initial formation of a new one-party state. As a result of various transformations by the end of the 1920s, the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of the Bolsheviks began to play a special role in the power structures. The relationship between the members and candidates for membership of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the AUCP(b) gradually begins to depend on the position of the General Secretary I.V. Stalin (since 1922). He begins to acquire the functions of a judge in various disputable situations that periodically arose between the opposing ideological associations of the above-mentioned state decision-making body, the nature of outgoing documents that appear in the business correspondence of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party is also transformed, and the factor of the informal system of making key decisions acquires a particular importance. As a result of such transformations, only a part of the approved decisions is recorded in the resolutions of the Political Bureau, while the preliminary work on their implementation is generally not taken into account anywhere. The Secretariat of the Bolshevik Party at the very beginning of its existence was generally conceived as an absolutely technical body, a kind of bureau of typists-secretaries, who would prepare on paper the printed texts of the decisions made by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the AUCP(b). The Secretariat of the Central Committee in no way meant a body for making economic, administrative, industrial, personnel, and no less political decisions. Elevation of this unsophisticated organ above other state and party organs is largely due to I.V. Stalin, who managed to redirect the documentation flow of the Soviet state through his department.


Author(s):  
Ling Zhao ◽  
Huang Hao

Purpose: This study examines how social trust, as an informal institution, creates a cooperative and honest atmosphere to improve managers’ willingness for firm innovation. This study also addresses that the informal system may substitute for the formal institutions in promoting corporate innovation. Design/methodology/approach: This study opts a sample of Chinese listed firms over the period of 2007–2014. We obtain the detailed patent application information from the official website of China Patent and Intellectual Property Office. The social trust information is based on the results of Chinese Enterprise Survey System. Findings: The results indicate that firms located in regions of high social trust tend to have more innovation output, and is robust to a battery of sensitivity tests. The authors further document that this effect is more pronounced for firms with poor short-term financial performance, which are located in regions with weak legal environments and firms having lower information transparency. In addition, the authors also demonstrate that social trust can help firms to get adequate funds to reduce financial pressure and encourage firms to pay more attention to long-term benefits, alleviating investors as well as management myopia. Research limitations/implications: Limited by the data sources, when measuring innovation activity, the authors only use patent numbers represent for innovation output. Then, this study measures the patent quality through classifying patent categories (invention patent or others), since in China, the citation data are imperfect and inadequate. Practical implications: The results suggest that social trust means a good culture of honesty and cooperation can promote firm’s innovation engagement. Especially, in emerging markets, where formal mechanisms are relatively less effective, informal institutions can serve as an alternative system for alleviating information asymmetry. Originality/value: This study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, this study finds the positive effect of social trust on corporate innovation, which provides a new perspective for deepening the understanding of the influence factors of innovation. Second, this study further clarifies the mechanism of social trust promoting firm innovation, indicating that social trust can effectively alleviate outsiders’ concern about moral hazard risk. Then the stakeholders are more willing to provide financial support and pay more attention to the firm’s long-term performance.


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