The Early 20th Century Resurgence of the Tibetan Buddhist World

The Early 20th Century Resurgence of the Tibetan Buddhist World is a cohesive collection of studies by Japanese, Russian and Central Asian scholars deploying previously unexplored Russian, Mongolian, and Tibetan sources concerning events and processes in the Central Asian Buddhist world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Set in the final days of the Qing empire when Russian and British empires were expanding into Central Asia, this work examines the interplay of religious, economic and political power among peoples who acknowledged the religious authority of Tibet's Dalai Lama. It focuses on diplomatic initiatives involving the 13th Dalai Lama and other Tibetan Buddhist hierarchs during and after his exile in Mongolia and China, as well as his relations with Mongols, and with Buriat, Kalmyk, and other Russian Buddhists. It demonstrates how these factors shaped historical processes in the region, not least the reformulations of both group identity and political consciousness.

Siberian Bukharans in Russian mission: gathering intelligence in Russia’s south-eastern borderlands, 17th-18th centuries

Siberian Bukharans were one of the most agile group of the native population of Western Siberia and the Urals in the 17th and 18th centuries. This paper analyzes information about the border activities of Bukharans, characterizes their participation in the implementation of Russian foreign policy. The author considers the phenomenon of intelligence and the intermediary and diplomatic role of the Bukharans through the study of various aspects of Russian policy on the southeastern borderlands. The result shows that Bukharans were involved in intelligence activities in several forms. The Russian authorities could interview Bukharans who came to trade; they could include Bukharans in Russian embassies; or they could send them into the steppe as independent agents. The geography of their missions in the 17th and 18th centuries included the Kuchum lands, the Kazakh khanates, the Oirat and Dzungar lands, as well as the Qing Empire. Bukharans participated in the negotiations as interpreters and they were sometimes allowed to participate in diplomatic ceremonies such as gift exchange. The intelligence activities of some Bukharans could go hand in hand with their trade operations. Recruiting Bukharans for intelligence gathering tsks allowed the Siberian and Orenburg authorities to conduct a more effective policy in the steppe borderlands, based on the knowledge of local realities. The Russian authorities used information provided by the Bukharans for purposes such as drawing up maps, informing the voivodes of the borderlands about military dangers, the movement of troops, and diplomatic negotiations.

Вооружение и знамена ойратов Джунгарии середины XVIII в. по материалам «Циньдин Хуанъюй Сиюй тучжи»

Introduction. The article deals with “Qinding Huangyu Xiyu tuzhi” (QHXT), the Qing source of the second half of the 18th century, namely its chapter (juan) 41 devoted to the weapons and military symbols of the Oirats of the Dzungarian state (1635–1758). The chapter in question has not been translated into Russian, neither has it been the subject of a special study so far. The aim of the present article is to introduce the evidence of this part of the Qing source on the weapons and banners of the Dzungars. Results. The compilation of the document was initiated by Emperor Qianlong after the territory of the Dzungar state was annexed to the Qing Empire. A group of Qing officials and of European specialists was sent to explore the newly acquired lands. The work in Dzungaria was largely carried out in 1756–1757, while the study of East Turkestan was completed in the spring of 1759. The work on the text itself began the same year to continue for about 23 years (1759–1782). Manchu military leaders who participated in the war in Central Asia took part, among others, in the compilation of the document. The source includes descriptions of Dzungarian weapons for distant and close combat, armor, and two types of Dzungarian banners. Each item is supplied with description and transcription of its original name. In some cases, the material used for their manufacture and typical sizes are indicated. The data of the written source under study compared with authentic samples of Dzungar weapons and pertaining visual materials has shown that the Qing officials described the features of their construction and decoration with high degree of reliability. Some of this information is unique and can be found in no other sources of the period. The data of the source is of special relevance for attributing various types of weaponry cited in Mongolian sources of the 17th–18th cc., as well as in the Mongolian and Oirat epics. The Qing authors made comparisons of the original names of the Dzungar weapons and armor with their construction features, which opens new avenues for elaborate studies of written works and epics of Central Asian populations. Conclusion. The analysis undertaken in the present article has shown that to date QHST is the most valuable and detailed Qing written source on the weapons and banners of the Dzungars of the middle of the 18th century.

Вооружение и знамена мусульманского населения Восточного Туркестана и сопредельных территорий середины XVIII в. по материалам «Циньдин Хуанъюй Сиюй тучжи»

Introduction. The article deals with the juan (chapter) 42 of the Qing source “Qinding Huangyu Xiyu tuzhi” written in the second half of the 18th century and devoted to the weapons and banners of the Muslim population (Huibu) of the former Dzungar state. The chapter has not been previously translated into European languages and has not been the object of a special study either. The purpose of the research is to examine and introduce this new data for scholarly attention and further inquiry. Results. The compilation of the document was initiated by Emperor Qianlong after the territory of the Dzungar state was annexed to the Qing Empire. A group of Qing officials and of European specialists was sent to explore the newly acquired lands. The work in Dzungaria was largely carried out in 1756–1757, while the study of East Turkestan was completed in the spring of 1759. The work on the text itself began the same year to continue for about 23 years (1759–1782). Manchu military leaders who participated in the war in Central Asia took part in the compilation of the document, too. The chapter under study describes three types of bladed weapons of the Muslim population in the region (kılıç, selem, hançer), spear (naiza), ax (aibalta), bow (yay), arrows (ok), quiver (saadak), chain mail (sauyt), plate armor (kuyak), quilted soft armor (olbog), mirror armor (char-ayna), helmet (duulga), and plate belt (beldemchi). Special attention was given to such parts of military suits as quilted liners of helmets and upper trousers (shalbars). Also, two types of battle banners are described in detail, such a salam, the small banner of beys and tug, a big banner. Each item is supplied with a description and the transcription of its original name. In some cases, the material used for their manufacture and typical sizes are indicated. Conclusions. The data of the written source under study compared with authentic samples of weapons and pertaining visual materials has shown that the Qing officials described the weapons and banners of the region with high degree of reliability. Some of this information is unique and can be found in no other sources of the period. The authors pointed out correlations between the original names of the weapons and armor with their constructive features, which opens new avenues for further research of the written works and epics of the Turkic population of Central Asia.

The Reincarnations of the Andzhatan Lama: a Study of the Phenomenon

The article deals with the under-researched topic about the role and significance of the Torgut tulku linage of Andzhatan Lamas in the history of Buddhism among the Oirats (Kalmyks). It also deals with the history of their relations with the authorities of Tibet and the Qing Empire. The source is the inscription found on the stele to the 19th Andzhatan Lama Lobsang Danbi Nime (1918–1985). It is written in Oirat and Chinese and comprises the data about his predecessors, the most famous and authoritative lamas of this linage (i. e. Lobsang Gelek and Lobsang Tenzin). The data found about these lamas in Russian archival documents as well as Chinese and Kalmyk (Torgut) sources are scarce and contradictory. The article aims to systematize the information about the individual incarnations of the Andzhatan Lama and confirm their authenticity where possibly. The authors confine their research to the topics as follows: a) Louzan, the son of the Kalmyk Taishi Kho-Urluk, and Lobsang Gelek, the first Anjja (Andzhatan) Lama; b) the role of Lobsang Tenzin, the Seventh embodiment of Andzhatan Lama in the exodus of Kalmyks and their settlement in the territory of the former Dzungaria in 1771; c) features and history of this embodiment line, its significance in the development of religious and political links between the Qing and the Oirats.

The Textual Architecture of Empire in Two Early Qing Anthologies

During the first half century of the Qing dynasty, Manchu emperors commissioned massive publication projects on the Chinese classics. In early Qing interpretations of classics on the family, negotiations between Manchu and Han family and gender norms furthered the empire-building project. This article compares the spatial form of the Yuding Nei ze yanyi 御定内則衍義 (1656), an expansion of the “Inner Standards” chapter of the Classic of Rites commissioned by the Shunzhi emperor, to that of the Yuding Xiao jing yanyi 御定孝經衍義 (1682), an expansion of the Classic of Filial Piety commissioned by the Kangxi emperor. These works are textual spaces where the cultural and political negotiations of the early Qing empire play out; they use spatial strategies of juxtaposition and hierarchy to balance different messages for different constituencies, creating textual models of empire.

Border Crossing between the Russian Far East and Manchuria

This article addresses population movements across the Amur and the Ussuri River borders between Russia and China. It analyses the history of border crossing in this region from Russia’s acquisition of the Amur and Maritime provinces from the Qing Empire in 1860 to the present time, with a focus on the 1920s and 1930s. The article’s first part demonstrates that the movement of people (settlers, work migrants, refugees) across the two river borders went in both directions. The second part asks when the formerly porous river borders became sealed through strengthened military control. By analysing the mechanics of border crossing, such as the clandestine passages of Mennonites, a Russian–German Protestant sect, from Soviet territory into Chinese Manchuria over the Amur in 1929 and 1930, as well as the escape stories of other refugees from the Soviet Union, the article shows in its third part that the ‘sealed’ borders could nonetheless be transgressed.

When There Is Peace, There Are Elephants

The Forbidden City, the symbolic and actual centre of power of the Qing Empire, was crowded with animals. This chapter focuses on elephants, a crucial part of imperial ceremonial processions. As performers in various imperial ritual ceremonies from the early Qing to almost the end of the dynasty, elephants exemplified how the palace machine of performative emperorship domesticated and imperialized wild animals, made them subject to imperial rule and metaphoric paragons of imperial virtue.

Formation of Hong Kong’s Administrative System in the 1840-1870s

The article considers the process of Hong Kong’s administrative system formation after its placement under the administration of the British Empire in 1842. A brief description of the local Chinese and expatriate communities is given and the character of their interaction is identified. The transformations of Hong Kong’s administrative system at the various stages of its formation are analyzed and its qualitative characteristic is given. The significant language and other barriers to the establishing of interaction between colonial administration and the Chinese community and inefficiency of the administrative control pattern in the 1840-50s are identified. Inefficiency of this pattern is considered as a prerequisite for its development by establishing of the new scheme of civil servants’ selection with the aim of teaching them Chinese language and creation of the team of interpreters ready to communicate with the local Chinese. The abovementioned scheme turned out to be efficient and practically laid the foundation for creating Hong Kong’s administrative system. The author comes to the conclusion that the new scheme trained specialists made an important contribution to the development of Hong Kong, which from the periphery of the Qing Empire was transformed to the autonomous outpost of the British Empire.

The Historical Perspective of Russian Turn to the East: How Russia Became an Eastern Power in XXI Century

Russia’s so-called “turn to the East” policy has become one of the widely discussed issues among other issues in contemporary international relations. The new strategic relations with China and the beginning of a new era in Sino-Russian bilateral relations are the most representative results of the “turn to the East”. The history behind these relations is a factor with tend to be ignored by those discussing the matter. However, the historical view of Sino-Russian relations can provide us with new horizons in their interpretation. This article analyses the “turns to the East” from a historical point of view and theorizes new approaches towards their conceptualization. From the historical point of view, Russia’s “turns to the East” can potentially help the two countries overcome very profound obstacles in bilateral relations, such as the problem of Russia’s image in China after the border disputes with the Qing Empire. Undoubtedly, the “turns to the East” policy’s implications in the economic development of Russian Far East is one of the central topics. As well, the historical analysis of this policy can enrich nowadays discussion about Russian identity and Russia’s position in the East-West paradigm. Also, this article draws attention to the commercial aspect of Sino-Russian relations, which nowadays still represent an important criterion in judging the “turn to the East” policy’s effectiveness. By including examples of other countries’ relations with China, we tried to underline how history has become an instru- ment for developing relations with modern China and how this opportunity is applicable in the Sino-Russian context too.