Alcohol Consumption and Closed Borders - How COVID-19 Restrictions have Impacted Alcohol Sales and Consumption in Europe

BackgroundThe closing of bars, restaurants and international borders during the COVID-19 pandemic led to significant changes in alcohol availability. The study provides a first systematic overview of the monthly development of alcohol sales in Europe during the pandemic in order to determine the effect of closed borders on the sales and consumption of alcohol.MethodsThe study covers 60 months from January 2015 to December 2020 in 14 northern-European countries with excise revenue data for beer, wine, spirits separately and summed, converted into litres of pure alcohol per capita 15+ as a proxy for alcohol sales. March-December 2020 is seen as the pandemic period. The analyses consist of (1) descriptive trends of sales before and during the pandemic, (2) assessment of the pandemic impact on sales by time-series analyses and (3) case studies of countries with substantial cross-border inflow or outflow of alcohol.ResultsThe result shows an overall reduction in alcohol sales during the pandemic. Nevertheless, the results differ based on the level of cross-border purchasing flows pre-pandemic, as countries with high cross-border inflow saw an increase in domestic sales as the pandemic hit. ConclusionThe closing of intra-European borders had a significant redistributing effect on alcohol sales. While noting sales increases, cross-border inflow countries generally saw a decrease in total alcohol consumption as not all cross-border purchases were replaced by domestic sales. This has important policy implications as large volumes of cross-border inflow of alcohol can negatively affect excise revenue as well as public health outcomes. The methodology can be used to further explore the reliance of different purchasing streams in a domestic alcohol market.

Risk for Mould Growth on Hemp-Lime at Different Relative Humidity

Microbial growth often thrives in humid conditions, at high relative humidity. Moulds are complex organisms; many types of mould are able to survive strong variations in humidity and temperature, such as those on building façades. For some building materials a critical relative humidity is determined, which functions as a theoretical threshold; at this (or lower) relative humidity microbial growth will likely not occur. Hemp-lime is a building material that consists of hemp shiv (the woody core parts of the hemp stem) and building lime. It is a material that can be used for walls, and even though it has been used for more than 20 years, thusfar little is known about its critical moisture levels for microbial growth. The aim of this research was therefore to determine at what relative humidity microbial growth occurs on carbonated hemp-lime material, and to study if there is a protective influence of a carbonated lime binder on the hemp shiv. The objective was to study microbial growth on hemp shiv, hemp-lime and on hemp with a thin layer of lime at three relative humidity (75 %, 85 % and 95 %) and at two different temperatures (15°C and 23°C); conditions that could occur naturally in a hemp-lime façade exposed to high rain loads in a northern European climate. Hemp shiv seems to have a relatively low resistance to microbial growth, similar to that of wood. However, because the hemp is protected by lime it can withstand much higher relative humidity without microbial growth occurring on the material. The critical moisture level for hemp-lime seemed to occur between 75 and 85 % RH, while the material was completely without microbial growth at 75 % RH. The lime had a protective effect on the hemp and acted as a mould inhibitor, both over time and with varying temperature and humidity.

Administering Empire. Business Diplomacy in Early Modern Sweden: The Cases of Abraham Cabiljau and the Gothenburg Company

The article illustrates the importance of business diplomacy practised by free agents, who navigated and negotiated between northern European empires for widespread commercial, legal and administrative developments. Abraham Cabiljau’s career is an example from the early modern Swedish empire, which stands on the threshold of a new era. In the Swedish empire, Cabiljau was involved in several different sectors, from military recruitment to the development of state accounting and administration of international trade. He represents the Swedish empire’s vast economic relationships with international merchant networks operating in a broad spectrum of military and commercial arenas. The Swedish empire was economically dependent on the financial resources of the merchants in Amsterdam, and economic prosperity was not the sole contribution of these merchants. The education, knowledge and connections provided by Cabiljau greatly enhanced the administration and organisation of Sweden’s international trade by importing a new legal mindset and organisational culture. In return, northern mining resources and Baltic commerce were alluring for Dutch merchants. We argue that the modelling of international organisations was an essential part of Swedish economic development. However, the first Swedish trading companies remained an experimental attempt to transplant the Dutch East India Company (VOC) model to Sweden. Individuals like Cabiljau represent key actors who ignited, taught and promoted commercial law development in Sweden, on which international commerce was later built upon, with long-lasting impacts.

Liberalization and Governance in the Geographical Distribution of Pharmacies in Spain

The Health system in Spain is considered one of the most valued public services by the population. In fact, during the first decade of the 21st century, Spain became a health tourism destination for people from central and northern European countries. In addition to the health infrastructure, the quality of medical and nursing care stands out. Something similar also happens with the Spanish pharmaceutical system. However, there are some characteristics that should be addressed from a Geography perspective. The pharmacies’ legal system does not consider them to be of public interest. One is when some of the main activities are the sale and distribution of medicines that are partially paid for by the Administration, that is, Social Security. In the same activity, the public function is combined with the private interests of the pharmacy owners to provide a balanced territorial service. One of the conclusions demonstrates how the borders that are sometimes created by the Administration are not always the most efficient in relation to the characteristics of the territory, nor do they provide the best service to the population and, therefore, create territorial imbalances within a country. To reach our conclusions, we carried out an exhaustive study of the pharmacy legislation in the EU and in Spain, as well as Geography of Health and theories of territorial location. We combined this information with statistics on the territorial characteristics of Spain. This allowed us to confirm the peculiarities that exist within the governance of the distribution of pharmacy offices in Spain.

Material Culture of the Horizon of the 10th Century at the Hillfort near Spitsino Village

The article presents the results of research in 2019-2020 of the 10th century settlement on a multi-layered hillfort near the village of Spitsino (4th -5th, 10th centuries). The monument is located at a considerable distance from the main river routes in the region, which excludes its relationship with the Upper Oka section of the Don trade route in the 9th -10th centuries. A significant part of the finds discovered during exploration 2019, are of Northern European origin and date back to the mid. - 2nd half 10th century. There are also a few finds related to steppe antiquities. According to the materials of the excavations, the buildings of two construction periods are identified. The ceramic complex of buildings of the early construction period is represented by fragments of stucco vessels of the Romaine type and redeposited fragments of vessels of the 4th - 5th century. Fragments of early vessels made on a potter's wheel dating from the second half of the 10th century are found in the ceramic complex of the late construction period. Thus, the monument can be attributed to the period of the middle - second half of the 10th century. This period until recently represented a chronological lacuna in the period of Slavic colonization of the region.

Portuguese Wood Pellets Market: Organization, Production and Consumption Analysis

Wood pellets are a form of energy that can be seen as an alternative to fossil fuels, thus contributing to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. In other words, wood pellets can be considered a solution contributing to the mitigation of climate change. The use of wood pellets has grown significantly in recent years, with different markets emerging, such as Portugal, both from production and consumption perspectives. The wood pellet industry in Portugal began its development about 15 years ago, with the companies installed in the country initially almost exclusively dedicated to the production of wood pellets for export to central and northern European markets. However, over the years, the domestic market, initially considered insignificant, began to develop; it recently reached a considerable consuming share of the national production. This study presents an analysis of the Portuguese wood pellet market using data collected on the sector, and specifically on producers and consumers. The information was gathered using surveys presented directly to consumers and producers and through interviews with other stakeholders in the sector. From the analysis of the information, it was possible to understand the market’s dynamics, its current evolution and its prospects for the upcoming years, since it can already be considered mature and consolidated.