Criteria for evaluating lithium–air batteries in academia to correctly predict their practical performance in industry

The criteria for evaluating lithium–air batteries in laboratory-based experiments are proposed for accurately predicting the performance of practical cells in industry.

Lithium superoxide encapsulated in a benzoquinone anion matrix

Lithium peroxide is the crucial storage material in lithium–air batteries. Understanding the redox properties of this salt is paramount toward improving the performance of this class of batteries. Lithium peroxide, upon exposure to p–benzoquinone (p–C6H4O2) vapor, develops a deep blue color. This blue powder can be formally described as [Li2O2]0.3 · [LiO2]0.7 · {Li[p–C6H4O2]}0.7, though spectroscopic characterization indicates a more nuanced structural speciation. Infrared, Raman, electron paramagnetic resonance, diffuse-reflectance ultraviolet-visible and X-ray absorption spectroscopy reveal that the lithium salt of the benzoquinone radical anion forms on the surface of the lithium peroxide, indicating the occurrence of electron and lithium ion transfer in the solid state. As a result, obligate lithium superoxide is formed and encapsulated in a shell of Li[p–C6H4O2] with a core of Li2O2. Lithium superoxide has been proposed as a critical intermediate in the charge/discharge cycle of Li–air batteries, but has yet to be isolated, owing to instability. The results reported herein provide a snapshot of lithium peroxide/superoxide chemistry in the solid state with redox mediation.