Fortified Villages of Mediaeval Byzantium: Town or Village?

The search for a model rural settlement – “village” is the common position in interpretation of the problem on the “fortified villages” of Mediaeval Byzantium. On the one hand, the multiformity of the settlement’s types in the Byzantine Middle Ages is conditioned by climatic and local natural specificities. On the other hand, the patterns of rural settlement are predetermined by the social and economic structure and development of all the other sides of life of habitants of the village, including a dwelling. The tasks of the defence of population foreordain a necessary of construction of fortresses (“kastra”) and their deployment into defensive system. It quite corresponds to the processes, developed in many south regions of Mediaeval Europe, where the building of fortifications, transmuting the village into the fortress – “castrum”, becomes as rule. The building of the fortresses and other fortifications in towns and rural settlements of Mediaeval Byzantium creates a trend, designating the degree of necessary defence of its habitants. This tendency makes itself felt in Late Byzantium. The guarded by walls rural settlements here were not unique. The “pyrgoi” and so named “dwelling towers” were built everywhere, these served as refuges for villagers in the ordeals of the war years. The appellation “pyrgos” turned into synonym of the designation of the rural settlement, as a landlord’s state, and a substitute of term “chorion”. The “pyrgoi” appeared practically as “keypoints” of every description of the territories of large landownings, the passed ways and the households arranged there. The system of fortifications as a defence of whole region was deployed in Byzantine country, where the rural settlement has significant position. The article consists of the Introduction (“Introduction. The Village and key Problems of its Studying”), three parts (“The fortified Settlement”, “The rural Fortifications”, “The Pyrgos”) and the part “The Results and Conclusion. The Common Trends”, where the main problems are examined, touching the study of the Mediaeval Byzantine village, pyrgoi and common regularities of fortification of Late Byzantine village.

REGARDING THE LEGAL NATURE OF THE COSTS ON UNACCOUNTED ELECTRICITY IN SPHERE OF ECONOMY

The article is devoted to the study of the legal nature of the cost of unaccounted electricity, the calculation of which is a consequence of the commission of relevant offenses in sphere of economic activities. Attention is drawn to the problem of qualification of the cost of unaccounted electricity and the active dynamics of changing the positions of the judiciary on the issue, the lack of a common position on the legal nature of these losses. It is noted that economic courts do not make a legal assessment of such losses in the process of considering cases for cost recovery of unaccounted electricity or such an assessment is debatable. It is noted also that the cost of unaccounted electricity in law enforcement practice qualifies as operational-economic sanctions, and as losses, and as payment for the cost of electricity (a special form of liability). In this regard, the key aspects of the application of such forms of economic and legal liability as operational-economic sanctions and compensation for losses are analyzed, the features of contractual debt are determined. Arguments are given that exclude the possibility of recognizing the accrual of the cost of unaccounted electricity by operational-economic sanctions. It is proved that the cost of unaccounted electricity is not a payment for the supplied electricity, including debt. Based on the analysis of the relevant rules of economic legislation and special regulations governing relations in the electricity market, and according to scientific positions on forms of economic liability and judicial practice of recovery of unaccounted electricity, arguments are presented and it is substantiated that disputes on recovery of unaccounted electricity in the field of economic activities are disputes over the recovery of losses, and the value of unaccounted electricity in the field of economic activities by its legal nature are losses in the form of the value of lost property.

Morphological and Morphometric Analysis of Mental Foramen in Dry, Human Mandibles of South India

Background: Mental foramen is a key factor in many of the surgical as well as clinical procedures in routine clinical practice. The variations of mental foramen with respect to position, size and number does significantly alter the clinical implications of various intraoral treatments. In this light, the present study on the position and morphological variants of mental foramen holds significance. Aims and Objectives: To study morphological and morphometric analysis of mental foramen in dry human mandibles of South India Materials and Methods: 50 dried adult Human mandibles of unknown sex with complete dentition and intact alveolar margin were studied The morphometric analysis was done using vernier calipers Results: In the present study, the most common position of mental foramen was of type 4 (in line with the 2nd premolar) 62% cases on Right and 66% cases on Left side The next common position was Type 3(Between the premolars) 24% cases on Right side and 18% cases on the left side The mean distance between Symphysis menti and anterior margin of mental foramen was 23.4mm and 23.2mm on Right and left side respectively and the mean distance between posterior margin of mental foramen and posterior border of ramus was 62.2 mm and 61.5 mm on Right and left sides respectively Conclusion: The present study has thrown light on the common position and morphometric variations of mental foramen in a given South Indian population. This information will be valuable to the dental surgeons for localization of Neurovascular bundle emerging through mental foramen and for delivering local anesthesia effectively for placement of dentures/implants and other invasive procedures Keywords: Mental foramen, Human mandible, Morphology, Morphometry.

Anaotmical variability in the position of cystic artery during laparoscopic visualization

Background The laparoscopic view of extrahepatic biliary tract and cystic artery is different anatomically from open approach. Consequently iatrogenic injuries due to inadverent damage to cystic artery are not uncommon. These complications can be prevented by careful dissection in Calots triangle and better knowledge of laparoscopic anatomy of cystic artery and its variations. The aim of this study is to establish the prevalence of variation in position of cystic artery in relation to cystic duct. This will help identify the safe area for dissecting peritoneum in Calots triangle and thus help young surgeons overcome the long learning curve associated with laparoscopy. Materials and methods During a 10 year period from January 2009 to January 2019, 1850 laparoscopic cholecystectomies that were performed at a tertiary care hospital were studied. Patients with history of previous abdominal surgery were excluded from the study. Cystic artery was divided into four groups based on its relative position to cystic duct. It includes superomedial, superolateral, anterior and absent cystic artery relative to the cystic duct. Results Out of 1850 cases of laparoscopic cholecystectomy 1676 (90.59%) patients had cystic artery superomedial to cystic duct and 96 (5.19%) had a cystic artery at superolateral position to cystic duct. In 48 (2.59%) patients it was found anterior to cystic duct and in 30 (1.62%) patients it was absent. Conclusions It is concluded that the most common position of cystic artery is superomedial while the least common position was found to be anterior to cystic duct. Hence it is postulated that blind dissection from anterior side is the safest approach to avoid injury to cystic artery.

India and Vietnam in the Indo-Pacific

The international order today is characterised by power shift and increasing multipolarity. Countries such as India and Vietnam are working to consolidate the evolving multipolarity in the Indo-Pacific. The article maps the convergences in the Indian and Vietnamese foreign policy strategies and in their approaches to the Indo-Pacific. Both countries confront similar security challenges, such as creeping territorial aggression. Further, India and Vietnam are collaborating with the United States and Japan to maintain a favourable balance of power in the Indo-Pacific. While Delhi and Hanoi agree on the need to reform the United Nations, there is still some distance to travel to find a common position on regional economic architectures. The India–Vietnam partnership demonstrates that nation-states will seek to define the structure of the international order and in this instance by increasing the intensity of multipolarity.

The Contradictory Christ

The claim that Jesus Christ is God (“fully divine”) and is as human as you and me (“fully human”) has appeared to many thinkers to be contradictory. But all sides have long shared a common position: namely, that the truth of God incarnate cannot be contradictory. Jc Beall disagrees: he argues that the truth of the incarnation is as it appears to be, namely, contradictory. This book lays out Beall's contradictory account of Jesus Christ.

Cuba – EU: the difficult way to cooperation

The article analyzes the development of relations between Cuba and European countries during past soviet period. The main characteristic of this process was its unevenness. Having lost the markets of the USSR and European socialist countries Cuba objectively was interested in finding new partners both for replacement of the sources of industrial goods delivery and for exporting its own products. European countries seemed to be adequate substitution of Russia (except petroleum deliveries). The article describes how the economic interests of the EU to enter the capacious Cuban market contradicted with principals of democracy and human rights. That was the reason of freezing periodically the progress in the economic links. The problem was partly resolved when the decisions taken for political reasons did not apply to “EU-Cuba” relations. The main obstacle for the bilateral economic cooperation was the EU’ Common Position, approved in 1996 which didn’t permit for both sides to subscribe the agreement of cooperation. The cancellation of the EU’ Common Position, together with developing of bilateral relations of individual countries with Cuba gives the EU possibilities to become a strategic economic partner of the Island. The analysis of the development EU – Cuba partnership helps to understand better how Cuban leaders act on the international scene.

Cuba – EU: the difficult way to cooperation

The article explores the development of relations between Cuba and the European countries during the postsoviet period. Having lost the access to the markets of the USSR and the European socialist countries, Cuba objectively was interested in finding new partners both for the replacement of the sources of industrial goods delivery and for exporting its own products. European countries seemed to be an adequate substitution of Russia (except petroleum products delivery). The article highlights how the economic interests of the EU to enter the capacious Cuban market contradicted principals of democracy and human rights. That was the reason for freezing periodically the progress in the economic links. The main obstacle for the bilateral economic cooperation was the EU Common Position, approved in 1996. The cancellation of the EU Common Position, together with developing of bilateral relations of individual countries enables the EU to become a strategic economic partner of Сuba. The analysis of the bilateral partnership provides better understanding how Cuban leaders act on the international scene.

DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIONS BETWEEN KAZAKHSTAN AND UZBEKISTAN AT THE PRESENT STAGE

The article assesses the process of development of relations between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, describes the impact on bilateral relations of current events in international relations. Kazakh-Uzbek relations have a historical character, emphasize the common position between the two countries, the importance of common interests. The author, assessing the prospects for cooperation between the two countries, first of all focused on the influence of external factors. He gave data on the events taking place in modern international relations, analyzed the relations between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in the new conditions.