Translation or Divination? Sacred Languages and Bilingualism in Judaism and Lucumí Traditions

I compare the status of a sacred language in two very different religious traditions. In Judaism, the Hebrew language is the language of liturgy, prayer, and the Written Law. The traditional way of reading Torah passages involved translating them into Aramaic, the everyday language of communication in the Middle East in the first half of the first millennium CE. Later, other Jewish languages, such as Yiddish, played a role similar to that of Aramaic in the Talmudic period, constituting a system referred to as the “Traditional Jewish Bilingualism”. Hebrew lexemes had denotations related to the realm of Biblical texts, while Aramaic/Yiddish lexemes had everyday references. Therefore, the act of translation connected the two realms or domains. The Lucumí (Santería) Afro-Cuban religion is a syncretic tradition combining Roman Catholicism with the Ifá tradition, which does not have a corpus of written sacred texts, however, it has its sacred language, the Lucumí (Anagó) language related to the Yoruba language of West Africa. While the Spanish-Lucumí bilingualism plays an important role in Santería rituals, the mechanisms of reference are very different from those of the Hebrew-Yiddish bilingualism in Judaism. In Santería, divinations about the meaning of Lucumí words play a role similar to the translations from Hebrew in Judaism. I further discuss the role of ritual dances in Santería for the transition from the sacred to the secular domain and a function of Hebrew epitaphs to connect the ideal world of Hebrew sacred texts to the everyday life of a Jewish community.

Ìgbélárugẹ Èdè: Akinwumi Isola’s Model for Promoting African Languages

The ever-popular discussion in African literary circles is critically about language choices that African writers make in their creative endeavors. This is part of this write-up’s focus plus the plight of African languages with attention to the benefit and challenges for their empowerment. We set out to achieve two goals in this essay; first contributing to the ongoing discussions on African mother tongues, their vital roles in African literatures while characterizing pointers on proficiency and performance. Second, considering the use of Yoruba language in creative works of late Akínwùmí Oròjídé Iṣọ̀lá. Expectedly, the latter goal will exemplify the importance of indigenous languages to African writers. In pursuance of these dual goals, it is critical to highlight areas in which African writers, especially those writing in their native African languages, have endured to play crucial roles in promotion of African languages. These highlighted areas go beyond now fashionable and expressed goal of focusing on literature in African languages (splendor in African languages) onto push for fairness for languages and their speakers (linguistic justice).

Alàgbà Adébáyọ̀ Fálétí as a Yorùbá Novelist

In their introduction to a book entitled: Yorùbá creativity, fiction, language, life, and songs, Falola and Genova (2005) assert that creativity among the ̣ Yorùbá has a long history and the traditions of oral histories, storytelling, performances and dramas are parts of fundamental habit of their civilization. In the pre-colonial era, the authorship of the stories in the folktales and in some poetic genres could not be claimed by any particular artist/artiste, but due to the influence of colonial rule, western literary traditions, among others, storytellers can claim authorship of their works today. The Yorùbá make no distinction between myth, legend and history. They all come under ìtàn (Ogunsina, 1992). One Yorùbá novelist that has distinguished himself in the effective use of ìtàn (story) in novel writing is Adébáyò ̣ Fálétí. He is not only a storyteller, he is a literary historian. Every creative writer in Yorùbá society is admired and judged as competent or otherwise not only by writing in the medium of the language but by having captivating story line and on the basis of his/her use of ‘quality’ Yorùbá language (i.e. language full of proverbs and other rhetoric devices). An average Yorùbá reader of Fálétí’s novels, poetry, plays and viewer of his films usually responds with delight because of his powerful use of Yorùbá language and captivating story lines, plot construct, narrative techniques and thematic contents. Isọ la (1998) classifies all other Yorùbá major novelists apart from Fágúnwà ̣ into three groups on their use of language and creative pedigree (190). According to him, “some are mere story tellers” who use mainly casual language; 154 Lere Adeyemi there are others with mixed styles and there are a few of them who creatively exploit the genius of the language. He identifies Adébáyò ̣ Fálétí among few others as belonging to the genius category. Ogunsina (1992) groups Fálétí as a prominent historical novelist who incorporates historical materials into novel writing. I agree with Ogunsina that Fálétí’s effective transfer of histori ̣ - cal materials into fiction is a revelation of the novel’s eclectic quality and also a manifestation of Fálétí’s creative genius. Fálétí’s love of ìtàn (story) is reflected in all his literary works, be it poetry, play or novel. However, our focus in this study is to examine Adébáyọ̀ ̣ Fálétí as a Yorùbá novelist through his literary lens.

Traditional Songs of Ìlọrin: Enacting Identities, History, and Cultural Memories

Ìlọrin is a distinct community and a melting pot where people of diverse ethnic and cultural identities came together to form a settlement in the 17th century. These ethnic groups include Yorùbá, Haúsá, Fúlàní, Núpé, Kànnìké, Kéńbérí, Bàrùbá, and Malians¸ Arabs, among others. However, despite these ethnic and cultural diversities of Ìlọrin and the Fúlàní political hold on it, Yorùbá language is the lingua franca of the community. How these ethnic groups fnd their voices and articulate their historical and cultural identities within this unified framework becomes a source of concern. As a response to this concern, traditional songs of Ìlọrin like dàdàkúàdà, bàlúù, agbè, wákà, kèǹgbè, orin ọlọ́mọ-ọba Ìlọrin, among others sung in Yorùbá language become a site of contestation of ethnic and cultural identities. Te focus of this essay is to analyze Ìlọrin traditional songs as they portray and contest ethnic identities, reconstruct history, and revitalize cultural memories of indigenes. The paper argues that given such a diverse ethnic and cultural origins, performance of Ìlọrin traditional songs become a reminder of family histories, origins, political structure, hegemonic influences, myths, legends, Islamization of Ìlọrin, and a way of ensuring harmony and bridging generational gaps among the various groups in a state that is known as the “State of Harmony”.

Yoruba Epistemology, Art, Language and the Universe of Meanings: A Meta-Analysis

I had the rare privilege of delivering in proxy the original paper of Professor Moyo Okediji at the African Studies Association meeting, where it was first presented on December 2, 2016. Although short in quantity, I consider it to be loaded in quality, contents, intents, intensities, and in its ability to problematize a discourse critical to our understanding of indigenous scholarship and all its epistemological implications that span the entire landscape of the humanities. Indeed, Okediji’s pedagogy is the proverbial Yoruba drum of “ògìdìgbó” which is revealed only to the wise and the prudent, and they are the only two capable of effectively dancing to its rhythm. The paper reminds one of the title of the memoir of Ellen DeGeneres, the famous American comedian, titled Seriously . . . I’m Kid[1]ding. Even as a non-apologist of Ellen DeGeneres, or of any other American comedian for that matter, one would find profound meaning to that title, and embrace it as very deep and philosophical. Like in many Shakespearean plays, many truths are expressed in the acts of the jesters, not in the court of the privileged kings and pundits. This is exactly the way I responded to Okediji’s beautiful write-up. It got me thinking. It is a needed shock therapy, an organic rendition of an intellectual exposition of the Yoruba art. This commentary is janus-faced. On one hand, it looks at the unique way in which Moyo Okediji critiqued the work of Rowland Abiodun, Yoruba Art and Language: Seeking the African in African Art. On the other, it concurs with Abiodun’s thesis of the indispensability of the Yoruba language and oral tradition in the understanding of the Yoruba art. In his contribution to the roundtable forum on Professor Abiodun’s book at the African Studies Association in Washington, DC (December 1-3, 2016), Okediji provided his full presentation in Yoruba language, unalloyed (see the first essay in this forum). In order to broaden the scope of his readership and audiences, I chose to translate his write-up to the English language (Appendix 1). However, I used the translation to underscore the challenges of inter-cultural interpretation. The translation process demonstrates the problem of using one language to dissect another language without the depth of knowledge of the cultural make-up of the originator of the text. The attempt provides the data in which we are able to draw conclusions on a variety of issues: One, it highlights the futility of translation of a cultural theme at any level; two, it speaks to the frustration inherent in the imposition of one language over the art and culture of another; and three, it demonstrates the need for a cultural understanding between the originator of a text and the translator as precluding any reasonable translation and/or interpretation of the text. Using my attempt at translating as an example, I argue that at the very best what my effort could produce was an interpretation rather than a translation of Okediji’s text. I then argue that Okediji’s text brings to light the main thrust of Abiodun’s argument, which is that the indigenous language that births the art and culture of a people is the only channel through which the said art and culture could be most accurately interpreted or critiqued. Any attempt at superimposing other languages on the art can only result in a secondary, if not tertiary, interpretation and consequently a watered-down version of the original. The corollary is that such attempt will of necessity tamper with the sacred epistemological authenticity of the language-art-culture continuum.

A Conversation with Toyin Falola on the future of Yoruba Language

OF: Èdè Yorùbá ni á ̀kóko yìí tí ̀ ń lọ sí òkun ìgbàgbé, níbo ni ọr̀ ọ yìí tí w ̀ ọ wá? TF: Hmm, ìbéèrè tó ṣe kókó tó ṣe pàtàkì tó ń kọni lóminú rèé. Lotitọ, èdè abínibí wa Yorùbá ti ń parun, àwọn oun tó sì fàá pọ̀ lọṕ ọ̀lọpọ. À ̀kọ́kọ́ ni ipò ti ède ̀ Gẹẹ̀ sí ̀ ni ́ ori ́lè e ̀de ̀ wa Nài ̀jirí yá . Ipo ̀ ̀ yíì jẹyọ lati ipa ìj ́ ọba awon ̀ Birìtìko ̀ ́ loriwa kí a to ́ ́ gba ominira a ̀ ti a ̀ won funfun tí w ̀ ọn gbe ́ ́ ìmọ̀ẹsìn wa ̀ . ́ Aẁ ọn wọnyi ̀ ́ ni wọn k ́ ọ́kọ́ gbé ẹsìn ìgba ̀ gb̀ ọ́ ati ̀ ẹ̀kọ́ mọọ̀ ́kọ mọọ̀ ́ka. Wọn ́ bẹr̀ ẹ̀ síní ma kọ́ aẁ ọn ará Yorùbá ni e ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si ní ile ́ ́ ìwéṣugb̀ ọn a ko ́ ̀ le ̀ so wipé ́ wọn ́ ṣe eyi ̀ ́ ki e ̀dè Yorùbá le ̀ parun. Ìdi ́ ti ́ mo f sọ eyi ̀ ́ ni wipé ́ aẁ ọn ti ́ wọn gbe ́ ́ ẹsì n i ̀ gba ̀ gbo ̀ ́ yi ̀i ́ wá naá ̀ lóṣe igbi ̀ yà nju ̀ ́ lori bi ́ ́ ède ̀ Yorùbáṣe kókó di ki ́kọ si ́lẹ. ̀ Nígbà tí aẁ ọn Bìrìtìkó dé lati wa ́ ́ ma ṣe ìjọba amunisi ́ n, i ̀ ̀jọba atò ̀kerè wa ̀ ́ lẹyìn tí o ́ wo ̀ ̀ amuni ́ ṣẹrú dé opin, e ̀ ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ sì yíì ni w ́ ọn ́ f ń darí wa. Oun ti ̀ wọn ́ f ń kọ́ aẁ ọn ọmọ Yorùbá tó jẹ́ akẹẹ́ ̀kọ́ ni ́ẹ̀kọ; ò un ni w ̀ ọn ́ f ńṣe etò ̀ of̀ n, oun na ̀ á ̀ sìni wọn ́ f ṣe etò ̀ kará ̀katá . È yí tu ́ ḿ ọ̀ si ́ wipé ́ẹnikẹni to ́ ́ bá fẹ́ rí ọwọ́ mun nigba ́ ̀ naa gbọdọ le sọ e ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si. E ́ ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si yi rí iha pa ́ tà ̀kì yii gba nitori ́ pé ́ oun ni e ̀ ̀dè tó pa gbogbo wa pọ̀ nigba naa torí gẹǵ ẹ́ bi ́ gbogbo wá ṣe mọ, ori ̀ ́ṣiri ́ṣi ati ̀ ọp̀ ọ̀lọpọ̀ e ̀dè abinibi ́ ́ ni ó wà ni orílẹ̀ e ̀dè Nài ̀jirí yá . ̀ Ati igba ̀ yi ni e ̀ ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si ti j ́ ẹ gàba lori a ́ won e ̀ ̀dè abínibí wa. Ohun mirá n to ̀ ́ ń mú ìparun bá èdè Yorùbá ni aẁ ọn ìjọba wa. Lẹyìn tí a ́ gba ominira, e ̀ ̀dè yíì ṣi wà pẹ̀lu wa títí di oní. Ipo ̀ ̀ gíga tí ó wà nọni o ́ ́ṣì wa. ̀ Òun ni èdè ìdarí ìjọba, oun ni e ̀ ̀dè of̀ n wa. Kó dà iwe of̀ n tó ga jùlo ní ilu wa e ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si ni w ́ ọn ́ f kọ. Ni toot ́ ọ, o ma ṣoro fu ̀ n ìj ́ ọba apap ̀ ọ̀ láti mú èdè kan ṣoṣo ninú ́ oríṣiríṣi ede to n be ni ilu wa, eyi lo faa ti èdè Geesi ti ko je ti eya kankan f jẹ aaỳ ò ̀ wọn. Ṣugb̀ ọn a ́ ẁ ọn adari ́ ni ́ ipi ̀ nl ́ ẹ̀ tó jẹ́ ti Yorùbá 1 . Tis essay was originally published in Gbe ́legb́ ọ́ a Yoruba weekly magazine issue of March 23-29, 2020. 322 Oyesina Fadare lèṣe aẁ ọn nǹkan tó le mú agbega ba ̀ ́ èdè Yorùbá. Bi ́ owe a ̀ ẁ ọn baba wa, ti ́ọr̀ ọ̀ bá kan òke ̀ tó kan ilẹ, ò ́ ni ́ ibi ̀kan à ń gbe si. Á ẁ ọn olorí ́ ilẹ̀ Yorùbá gbọ́dọ̀ mọ̀ pé àì fun li ́ ́lo èdè Yorùbá ni ́ ipò ti ́ yanranti ́ ninú ́ i ̀ṣèjọbà kò jẹ́ kí ó wun ará ìlú lati ma ́ a lo. Ede G ́ ẹẹ̀ si ti di e ́ ̀de ̀ apà pà ndodo fun a ̀ ̀ṣeyọrí ni ́ ori ́le ̀ e ̀dè wa. Yat̀ọ sí íj ̀ ọba, aẁ ọn òbi naá ni ̀ nn ́ ̀kan ṣe pẹ̀lúọr̀ ọ tò wa ́ nil ̀ ẹ yi. Aẁ ọn òbí ayé òde oni ̀ ́ kìí sọ èdè Yorùbá si awọn ọmọ wọn. Wọn ní ìgba ́ gb̀ ọ́ pé èdè abinibi ́ ma ́ ṣe àkóbá fun mím ́ ọ e ̀de G̀ ẹẹ̀ si; a ́ ti wi ̀ pé Ǵ ẹẹ̀ si si ́ ṣe patà ̀kì ju e ̀de ̀ abinibi ́ ́ lọ. Ihà tí wọn k ́ ọ sí e ̀dè abinibi ́ ́ kò da rará ; ẃ ọn rí bíi ede ara ́ ́ oko. Wọn gbagb ́ ọ pe ti ọmọ bá ti mọ e ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si, o ́ ́ ti kogo ja; ko ́ ̀ sí ipò ti ́ kò le ̀ dé ni aye ́ . Ile ́ í we to n ko ̀ ọmọ ni ede Gẹẹ̀ si ni ́ ̀kan ni won ma n fẹ ra ́ n a ́ ẁ ọn ọmọ wọn lo. Gbogbo eerò ̀ burúkú wọnyi ̀ ́ ni wọn ́ f si ́ awon ọmọ ninu ti wọn ó si ̀ ma dagba ̀ là ti ko ́ rira e ́ ̀de abi ̀ nibi ́ . É yi ̀ ló fá ti ̀ é ̀de Yoru ̀ ̀báf n re ko ́ tò . Oo ̀ ̀ṣà tí á n bọ tí a kòf han ọmọ, ṣé ìparun rẹ̀ ò ma kan d ̀ ẹ̀dẹ?̀ Aẁ ọn ti ́ mo tun ma ni ́ ́ wọn ́ ṣe okunfa ̀ ̀ iparun e ̀ ̀dè abinibi ́ ́ bi ́i Yorùbá ni aẁ ọn olùkọ́ ati olu ̀ ̀dasíl ́ ẹ̀ ile iwe. Lati ́ ẹ̀kọ́ ìbẹr̀ ẹ̀ ni wàhálà yíì ti f́ ojú han. ̀ Ède G̀ ẹẹ̀ si ni olu ́ ̀kọ ma n ́ ló fù n ́ ọp̀ ọ̀lọpọ à ẁ ọn im̀ ọ̀ẹ̀kọ. Iye a ́ ̀kóko tí w ̀ ọn ́ f ń kọ́ e ̀dè Gẹẹ̀ si ju a ́ ̀kókò ti won f sílẹ̀ fún e ̀dè abinibi ́ ́ lọ ni ìlọpo ìlọpo. Kó dàẹ̀ṣẹ̀ ńlá ni ti akẹẹ́ ̀kọ̀ bá ń sọ e ̀dè Yorùba.

A Review of Toyin Falọla. Cultural Modernity in a Colonized World: The Writings of Chief Isaac Oluwole Delanọ. Pan-African University Press, 2020, 739 pages. Toyin Falọla and Michael O. Afọlayan eds. Isaac O. Delanọ A Dictionary of Yoruba Monosyllabic Verbs Edited with an Introduction. Pan-African University Press, 2020, 538 pages. Toyin Falọla and Michael O. Afọlayan eds. Selected Works of Chief Isaac O. Delanọ on Yoruba Language Edited and Introduced. Pan-African University Press, 2020, 644 pages.

Yes, the Yoruba Studies Review has asked me to write a “comprehensive review of the three books released on Chief Isaac Delanọ.” However, because Toyin Falọla had already committed 739 pages for an unsurpassed chronicle and review of the times, life, works, and classics of Doctor Isaac Oluwọle Delanọ, it would be pretentious of me to claim any attempt to do a comprehensive review of the three books. What I will do is to make a modest introduction Book Review 296 Bola Dauda of Delanọ’s long buried or an unheralded intellectual legacy. While Samuel Ajayi Crowther laid the foundation for the transition of Yoruba culture from oral to written literatures, Delanọ provided the guideline manuals, the methodological rubrics, and the compass and roadmaps for the studies and development of modern Yoruba orthography, linguistics, anthropological historiography, literatures, spirituality, and nation building. He was the first Administrative Secretary of the Ẹgbẹ Ọmọ Oduduwa, a cultural organization that became a political party in Nigeria at the dawn of Nigeria’s independence in the 1950s.

Women in Obasá’s Poetry

Obasá’s creativity cuts across virtually all aspects of Yorùbá socio-cultural ̣ settings and his works have attracted the attention of various scholars. It is evident that his poems are laden with topical issues that are of national interest. Most of his works, as described by previous scholars, are based on his love for and interest in Yorùbá language, social values, language, style, cultural practices, and the recovery endangered Yoruba oral art (Babalolá 1971, ̣ 1973; Olábimtán 1974a, 1974b; Ògúnsínà 1980; O ̣ látúnji 1982; Akínye ̣ mí 1987, ̣ 1991, 2017; and Nnodim 2006). Tis essay focuses on the representation of women in Obas ̣ á’s poetry, a topic that has not been given adequate attention. ̣ The essay attempts a close reading of Obas ̣ á’s poems within the Feminism and ̣ womanism theoretical frameworks. The research reveals that the representation of women in the poetry of Obasa did not go beyond the stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of women among the Yoruba.

The Landbound Chicken and the Deliberate Chameleon yet have their Uses: Yorùbá Art History, Language, and Interpretation.

Rowland Abiodun’s Yorùbá Art and Language contains many extremely valuable features, wrapped around a question he raises in its introduction: can foreign scholars ever truly understand a work the way its Yorùbá makers and users do? Language mastery certainly provides the native speaker with access to inestimable insights regarding not only general worldview, but specifics of philosophy, history keeping, and subtleties of knowledge transmission. However, in the attempt to read an artwork and unpack its meaning, cultural in[1]siders also face obstacles as well as advantages, particularly when pieces date from the more distant past. The import of Abiodun’s major contributions regarding Yorùbá art’s history and the validity of his contentions are considered here in light of the varied contributions both foreign and Yorùbá art historians bring to Yorùbá scholarship, in the recognition that working with art of bygone centuries makes all scholars outsiders to a degree. A kì í gbójú-u fífò lé adìẹ àgàgà; à kì í gbójú-u yíyan lé alágẹmọ. One should not expect the flightless chicken to soar; one should not expect the chameleon to stride. Can outsiders ever truly understand a work of art the way its makers and users do? In the introduction to his book Yorùbá Art and Language: Seeking the African in African Art, Rowland Abiodun concludes that only those with a mastery of the Yorùbá language and deep cultural familiarity can interpret Yorùbá artworks effectively. His argument produces numerous salie observations and the viewing framework he creates provides an exceedingly valuable set of lenses for interpreting Yorùbá sculpture. However, the question posed above remains intriguing, and is more complex than it appears. Even when an artist and his patron live in the same community at the same time, their interpretations of a commissioned work may not be identical, so when one moves out to the analyses of art historians, Yorùbá or not, one cannot necessarily assume a third party will understand the work just as its maker and user did. Additional corollaries to the question exist as well. What are the parameters of outsider status? Do they constitute a spectrum? Do insider advantages always trump outsiders’ perceptions? These issues become even more pertinent as distance from our own era increases. While the question of outsider/insider status does not constitute the thrust of Abiodun’s book, it is a major aspect of his introduction, and thus worth considering.1 While this paper considers the unique multiple contributions of Abiodun’s book, it also argues that careful considerations of objects and context can be made by outsiders, while insiders, like all researchers, can choose to ignore elements that conflict with their own preconceptions, develop greater interest in one topic than another, generalize their known experience to the whole of Yorubaland or apply it half a millennium into the past. While these perspectives differ, one does not automatically eclipse the other.

A Stylistic Analysis of Ṣeun Ògúnfìdítìmí’s Songs

Ṣeun Ògúnfìdítìmí is a traditional Yorùbá artiste of Oǹdó extraction. She is a promising and prosperous female artiste, who explores the richness of African values in creating her lyrics. Her songs are rendered in Oǹdó dialect. Oǹdó, a dialect spoken by the Oǹdó people of Southwestern Nigeria, is a dialect of the Yorùbá language. There have been multiple studies on traditional African songs. Such studies have engaged traditional African songs mostly from the non-linguistic perspectives. Such studies have investigated the historical and philosophical values of Yorùbá songs. Studies on songs rendered in dialects of Yorùbá language are very scanty. Dearth of studies in this regard has prevented the propagation and documentation of dialects of Yorùbá language. This study examines the discourse stylistic import of the sociocultural values in Seun Ògúnfìdítìmí’s songs with the view to describing how contextual issues are negotiated in her songs. Recorded songs of Ògúnfìdítìmí constitute the data for the study. The audio compact discs of her songs were collected and played repeatedly. The songs were transcribed and translated into the English language. The translation process took the form of one-to[1]one translation in order to avoid distortion of meaning. The artiste resorts to the use of discourse analytical tools in creating her lyrics. The songs reflect political, social, cultural and religious ideals of the Yorùbá traditional African society. The contextual issues expressed in the songs include the importance attached to the child as success indicator, the significance of marriage, love, conspiracy and the place of detractors, corruption and embezzlement, 184 Temidayo Akinrinlola supremacy of God, social degeneration, gender inequality and the cyclical nature of life. Ṣeun Ògúnfìdítìmí is an advocate of social and cultural revival of traditional African values.