Review: Insects—A Source of Safe and Sustainable Food?— “Jein” (Yes and No)

For almost a decade, edible insects have become promoted on a wider basis as one way to combat world hunger and malnourishment, although attempts to do so have a longer history. Contemporary researchers and consumers, particularly those without an entomophagous background, have been rising safety and sustainability concerns. The present contribution seeks a substantiated answer to the question posed above. The possible answer consists of different factors that have been taken into consideration. First, the species and its life cycle. It is mandatory to realize that what is labeled as “edible insects” stands for more than 2,140 animal species, not counting other edible, non-crustacean arthropods. Their life cycles are as diverse as the ecological niches these animals can fill and last between some days to several years and many of them may—or may not—be reproduced in the different farming systems. Second, the level of knowledge concerning the food use of a given species is important, be it traditional, newly created by research, or a combination of both. Third, the existence of a traditional method of making the use of the insect safe and sustainable, ideally from both the traditional and the modern points of view. Fourth, the degree of effectiveness of these measures despite globalization changes in the food-supplying network. Fifth, farming conditions, particularly housing, feeding (type, composition, and contaminants), animal health and animal welfare. Sixth, processing, transport, and storage conditions of both traditional and novel insect-based foodstuffs, and seventh, consumer awareness and acceptance of these products. These main variables create a complex web of possibilities, just as with other foodstuffs that are either harvested from the wild or farmed. In this way, food safety may be reached when proper hygiene protocols are observed (which usually include heating steps) and the animals do not contain chemical residues or environment contaminants. A varying degree of sustainability can be achieved if the aforementioned variables are heeded. Hence, the question if insects can be safe and sustainable can be answered with “jein,” a German portmanteau word joining “yes” (“ja”) and “no” (“nein”).

Farm to Institution to Farm: Circular Food Systems With Native Entomoculture

Edible insects recycle food waste, which can help feed a hungrier planet by making food systems more circular and diversifying protein production. The potential for entomophagy (i.e., insect cuisine) to contribute to waste recycling and lower input food production is only beginning to be explored in the U.S., although insects have been consumed by people for millennia in a wide range of cultures. In this perspective piece, we consider as a case study the potential for university foodservice programs in New England to serve as incubators for circular entomophagous food systems. Students are likely early adopters of entomophagy because they increasingly demand sustainable non-meat protein options. University foodservices meanwhile purchase large amounts of food wholesale from local producers, utilize standardized pre-processing, and generate consistent waste streams which may be valuable feed for local insect farmers. Current Farm to Institution approaches strengthen regional food systems by connecting small farmers with university foodservices; we argue that a similar model (Farm to Institution to Farm) could support establishment of local insect farms, introduce edible insects to a relatively receptive base of university student customers, and provide a more sustainable mechanism for repurposing university food waste as insect feed. But to enable this type of food system, additional requirements include: (1) research on domestication of native insect species; (2) investment in processing capacity, ensuring new insect farmers have reliable markets for raw insect products; (3) infrastructure to recirculate waste streams within existing food systems; and (4) creation of recipes that entice new insect consumers.

Taxonomic, economic and gastronomic analysis of some edible insects of the Order Hemiptera from Mexico

In some states of Mexico, 14 families, 51 genera and 146 species of edible insects of the order Hemiptera were registered; they belong to the families: Belostomatidae (3 genera, 7 species), Corixidae (6-13), Notonectidae (1-2), Lygaeidae (1-1), Coreidae (9-20), Pentatomidae (5-58), Rhopalidae (1-1), Pyrrhocoridae (1-1), Cicadidae (7-22), Dactylopiidae (1-4), Membracidae (4-7), Aethalionidae (1-6), Fulgoridae (1-3) and Kerridae (1-1). The Pentatomidae family presents the highest number of genera (14) and species (57). Their distribution by localities is indicated; these correspond to the municipalities of the different states so far sampled. Likewise, we report various forms in which they are prepared and the economic importance of, for example, the ‘Jumiles’ of the genus Euschistus and Edessa that are widely looked for, collected, accepted as part of the diet, consumed and marketed, is discussed.

How many people on our planet eat insects: 2 billion?

The estimated figure of two billion people consuming insects mentioned in the 2013 FAO/WUR report about edible insects has been cited many times over. This editorial asks four questions to determine the accuracy of the estimated figure: how to define an ‘insect-eating’ person; which percentage of the population eats insects; how does insect consumption develop over time; and how to define an edible insect? Our conclusion is that it is difficult to establish an exact figure of how many people eat insects globally and that the much cited 2 billion figure in the FAO/WUR report must be an overestimation.

Development of a Questionnaire to Assess Knowledge about and Perceptions of Edible Insects

Edible insects (EI) have been consumed as traditional foods in many parts of the globe, but in other regions, they are not readily accepted, particularly in Western countries. However, because EI are suggested to constitute a more sustainable protein food as compared with other sources of animal protein, they can be considered a future food that could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, new gastronomic trends are already targeting this area for exploring new potentialities. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a questionnaire to assess consumers’ perceptions and knowledge about EI in seven different domains: D1. Culture and Tradition, D2. Gastronomic Innovation and Gourmet Kitchen, D3. Environment and Sustainability, D4. Economic and Social Aspects, D5. Commercialization and Marketing, D6. Nutritional Aspects and D7. Health Effects. The 64 items were subjected to item analysis and reliability analysis for validation, and factor analysis was also conducted to identify a grouping structure. The results validated all the items of the seven subscales with high values of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.732 for D1, α = 0.795 for D2, α = 0.882 for D3, α = 0.742 for D4, α = 0.675 for D5, α = 0.799 for D6 and α = 0.788 for D7). However, by eliminating 17 items, the final values of the alpha increased in all subscales. Factor analysis with extraction by principal component analysis with varimax rotation extracted 14 factors that explained, in total, 65% of the variance, although the first two factors were the most important (35.7% variance explained). In conclusion, the confirmed usefulness of the questionnaire has been hereby validated for assessing consumer perceptions of and knowledge about EI.

Entomophagy in Gabon across the African context

Entomophagy is well established in the food habits of Africa; however, country-wide knowledge remains limited for several countries, including Gabon. Here, two surveys on entomophagy were conducted in Gabon through face-to-face interviews. The first survey collected information on insect eating habits from 169 potential consumers. Edible insects formed part of the diet of most Gabonese people, with more than 60% of consumers within participants, and were particularly common among the Teke ethnic group (93%). Familiarity with edible insects was influenced by culture and family, but not by gender or study level. The second survey focused on edible insect species and their host plants, by interviewing a sample of 113 both villagers and retailers. Seventy-five species of insects from six insect orders (Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata and Orthoptera) were consumed in Gabon, and were collected from 48 species of host plant. Many insects were formerly reported in the literature related to entomophagy; however, 13 species were newly reported as edible in this study: Bidessus batekensis, Bunaeopsis licharbas, Copelatus ateles, Copelatus confinis, Copelatus fizpaci, Copelatus tondangoyei, Gonobombyx angulata, Gonometa titan, Hydrocyrius columbiae, Oxychirus semisericeus, Philobota sp., Psara sp. and Ptyelus flavescens. Consequently, these surveys highlighted that entomophagy is common in Gabon. However, strategies to promote edible insects are needed to have a significant impact on food issues in Gabon (e.g. food insecurity and dependence on foreign food supplies). Additional researches on entomophagy in Gabon are required to further develop these strategies.

Insects as a food source for indigenous communities in Colombia: a review and research perspectives

Insects have been used worldwide as a source of food, and edible species are eaten both as immature (eggs, larvae, pupae, and nymphs) and in some cases as adults. In this regard, several scholars and researchers seek to promote an alternative entomological trend and highlight the potential of insects as a high-quality nutritional option. The consumption of various edible species contributes to the nutritional health of indigenous, rural peoples, as well as those individuals who live in urban areas and use this kind of food resource, in accordance with insects’ seasonal abundance. Colombia, due to its sociocultural origin, stands out as one of the Latin American countries that have the habit of consuming insects by presenting both biological and ethnic diversity. However, the use and diversity of edible insects in the country have been little studied. This review summarises the current status related to the knowledge of insects as food resources, with emphasis on ethnic groups established in the country. In Colombia, 69 edible insect species are currently reported, distributed in 49 genera, 27 families and 10 orders, and ingested by approximately 13 ethnic groups belonging principally to the Amazon and Caribbean regions. Guidelines and protocols are provided to establish research priorities in the study and use of edible insects in Colombia. In this way, the proposal of a general framework for the study and conservation of edible insect species, integrating a bioecological, socio-economic and institutional approach, will provide new perspectives for food security in this era of world food scarcity, and can play an interdisciplinary role (forestry, traditional medicine, agriculture, livestock) in mitigating the current global food crisis.