Women in Southern African History

Women have played complex roles in the history of Southern Africa, a vast region that comprises diverse local histories as well as social and cultural forms. The diversity of the region has been both integrated and fragmented through historical connections, which have centered on South Africa as a subimperial power. Prior to colonial conquest and the impact of Christian missions and European trade, gender relations varied, partly due to an array of social and kinship systems. Overall, however, the position of women in southern African societies deteriorated after colonization. Economic, political, and cultural dynamics impacted on gender relations through the interaction of European and indigenous patriarchy, colonial rule, and capitalist modes of production, which reinforced and transformed one another, evolving into new structures and forms of domination. The paradox of similarities due to settler colonialism and differences in respect of timing and pathways to decolonization impacted upon the trajectories of postcolonial gender politics and the representation of women in the postcolonial political structures of southern Africa. Despite initial differences regarding legal gender equality, everywhere that liberation movements in power established themselves in the region, discourses of “African culture and tradition” became pertinent. Colonial customary laws and powers given to traditional leaders remain at the heart of contemporary battles over gender equality and social justice.

Hei tiki: He whakamārama hōu

<p>This thesis addresses the problem that while hei tiki are the most culturally iconic of Māori adornments, there still remains much uncertainty concerning their origins, lineage of development and cultural use. A collections-based study investigates these areas of uncertainty in search of new mana-enhancing understandings. A position developed in the review is that hei tiki were probably highly developed stylistically from the outset to conform to adze-shaped pieces of pounamu, with the common hei tiki style likely appearing and rising to prominence quickly. A case is argued for local conventions of style exerting an early and ongoing influence upon the stylistic diversity and development of hei tiki, with a close relationship with wood carving appearing likely. The mana of hei tiki derived from the agency of prolonged ancestral use is investigated in relation to the view that, while hei tiki making and use probably reached their height in the early 19th century, a significant portion may have been made as European trade items. The manifestation of indigenous agency is a reoccurring theme investigated in this thesis and is argued to have implications for the mana of hei tiki. Features of hei tiki belonging to the early contact period 1769-1777 and to a general sample of 50 hei tiki from the Te Papa collection were recorded and enabled shape, style, pounamu and wear analysis. The results indicate that by 1769-1777 the adze shape was common amongst hei tiki, the most common style predominated, conventional proportions and most of the stylistic features apparently common to hei tiki in general had been established. Supporting evidence is found for a trend of increasing hei tiki size over time, and for hei tiki making and use having peaked in the early 19th century. Shape-to-size analysis also indicates early origins and continuity for the adze-shaped hei tiki. Furthermore pounamu and wear analysis results indicate that hei tiki continued to be used primarily by Māori. Overall the results are interpreted as supporting or being consistent with the arguments developed in the literature review and they are held to be mana-enhancing for hei tiki.</p>

Hei tiki: He whakamārama hōu

<p>This thesis addresses the problem that while hei tiki are the most culturally iconic of Māori adornments, there still remains much uncertainty concerning their origins, lineage of development and cultural use. A collections-based study investigates these areas of uncertainty in search of new mana-enhancing understandings. A position developed in the review is that hei tiki were probably highly developed stylistically from the outset to conform to adze-shaped pieces of pounamu, with the common hei tiki style likely appearing and rising to prominence quickly. A case is argued for local conventions of style exerting an early and ongoing influence upon the stylistic diversity and development of hei tiki, with a close relationship with wood carving appearing likely. The mana of hei tiki derived from the agency of prolonged ancestral use is investigated in relation to the view that, while hei tiki making and use probably reached their height in the early 19th century, a significant portion may have been made as European trade items. The manifestation of indigenous agency is a reoccurring theme investigated in this thesis and is argued to have implications for the mana of hei tiki. Features of hei tiki belonging to the early contact period 1769-1777 and to a general sample of 50 hei tiki from the Te Papa collection were recorded and enabled shape, style, pounamu and wear analysis. The results indicate that by 1769-1777 the adze shape was common amongst hei tiki, the most common style predominated, conventional proportions and most of the stylistic features apparently common to hei tiki in general had been established. Supporting evidence is found for a trend of increasing hei tiki size over time, and for hei tiki making and use having peaked in the early 19th century. Shape-to-size analysis also indicates early origins and continuity for the adze-shaped hei tiki. Furthermore pounamu and wear analysis results indicate that hei tiki continued to be used primarily by Māori. Overall the results are interpreted as supporting or being consistent with the arguments developed in the literature review and they are held to be mana-enhancing for hei tiki.</p>

Sky Plc v Skykick Uk Ltd (No. 3)

H1 Trade Marks—European trade marks—SKY—Validity—Broad specifications of goods and services—Bad faith—Requirement of clarity and precision—Lack of intention to use—Reference to Court of Justice—Application of the judgment of the Court of Justice—“Computer software”—“Telecommunication services”—Limiting the specification of goods—Interpretation of broad terms in specifications—Infringement

Structural and regional characteristics of the world retail trade leaders

The state of development of world retail trade through the prism of the TOP 250 retailers functioning is considered in the article. As part of the study the main performance indicators of Top 250 retailers for 2013-2020 have been analyzed. The world's leading retail trade networks have been performing positive dynamics of their development and a slight increase in the values of indicators. This might take place due to the stabilization of the level of globalization of retail trade as the result of active development of e-commerce and m-commerce. Retailers were also affected by such negative macroeconomic factors as slow economic growth in major developed economies, high levels of debt in emerging countries, deflation or low inflation in rich countries, a protectionist backlash against globalization, troubled credit markets in some countries, and worsening demographics in many countries. The size of retail revenue in 2020 helped us define five groups of trade networks. In addition, we determined the share of Top 250 companies by region/country in 2013-2019 and their revenue. The companies from Europe and North America have shown leading positions in the structure of Top-250 retailers in terms of retail revenue share in 2013-2019. The analysis of the features of expansion policy manifestation by trade structures, depending on the region of their origin, have been conducted. The European trade networks, which in 2019 were present on average in 18.3 countries has demonstrated the largest internationalization. The structure of Top 250 companies by product sector is considered as well. FMCG companies were dominated in the structure of the Top 250 retailers. Special attention has also paid to determining the place of European retailers in the Top 250 in the framework of the European model of retail development. This model assumes an active presence of trade networks in the markets of foreign countries.

Some Effects of EU Sugar Reforms on Development in Africa

The sugar industry is a major provider of jobs and income for sugar-exporting countries in Africa. The lower sugar prices that were caused by the recent liberalisation of the EU sugar market may not only jeopardise economic development in those countries, but the reforms also create difficulties for sugar-importing countries in Africa that seek to develop their sugar industries. The article analyses the effects of EU sugar market reforms on three African countries — Nigeria, South Africa and Mozambique — and provides insights into the balancing of the EU sugar policy’s intended effects against their adverse effects on European trade and development policy.

The “Galamsey” Menace: Implications on the Archaeological Record at Awudua Dada, Western Region, Ghana

This article discusses the socio-cultural consequences of small-scale artisanal gold mining on the archaeological record and other heritage resources at Awudua Dada, located in the Prestia-Huni Valley District of the Western Region, Ghana. The settlement witnessed vibrant commercial exchanges between Wassa and Dutch traders in the mid-seventeenth century because of its abundant gold resources, much of which was exchanged for novel European trade goods such as varieties of alcoholic beverages, guns, gunpowder, and finished metal products among many others. Currently abandoned and desolate, groups of small-scale artisanal gold miners continue to prospect gold there, and along the banks and bed of the Ankobra River which lies close-by. Archaeological, historical, and ethno historical research constituted the principal methods used to derive data for the study which revealed that mining had not only negatively impacted the archaeological record and other cultural resources there but had also caused significant environmental degradation.

Omnichannel marketing and beacon technologies: experience and prospects in Europe

The article presents the main results obtained from the use of Omnichannel marketing strategy and Beacon technologies in the field of European trade, determines by the difference between multichannel and omnichannel marketing strategies. For the development of the main directions of digital technologies in the field of marketing, proposed in the works of D.J. Peltier, it is necessary to update the components included in the structure of integrated marketing communications. The authors established that under the influence of modern digital marketing technologies, it is necessary to redefine the disparate points of contact with customers that affect the process of consumer engagement and profit generation due to the use of various Omnichannels. Developing practical aspects of the Omnichannel retail strategy put forward by Yu. Melantiu needs to take into account that at the intersection of effective Omnichannel marketing and strategic initiatives, marketers get the opportunity to attract new customers and increase the level of brand loyalty. The paper presents the structure of beacon technology, gives the results of its application in European trade. The study reveals that the emergence of Omnichannel marketing leads to the destruction of the structure fields in the already available points where brands and consumers come into contact. The purpose of the article is to assess the level of application of omnichannel marketing technologies and beacon technologies by European retailers in order to develop a recommendation base necessary for the further effective development of omnichannel marketing in European countries. The authors propose a scheme of interaction between beacon technologies and information technology integrators within the framework of the omnichannel marketing strategy. The study performs a comparative analysis of multichannel and omnichannel marketing strategies. The authors make conclusions related to the development of omnichannel marketing in European countries, as well as determine the possibility of integrating beacon technologies into the omnichannel marketing system.