“All the people who live in Auckland”: A study of subject and non-subject relative clauses in Auckland English

<p>This thesis is a study of the variation in relative marker choice by speakers of Auckland English. The data used in this study was collected as part of “Breaking Babel – Rethinking Language Change in a super-diverse city” (Meyerhoff et al. 2015). The thesis investigates the syntactic and social conditioning on the variation of the complementisers used to introduce relative clauses in the speech of a diverse group of Aucklanders. As a super-diverse city with a rapidly changing sociolinguistic profile, Auckland offers a rich source of data. This research explores how syntactic variation marks speakers of “Auckland English”. This work addresses several key research questions which centre on whether there is evidence of language change for this variable, and if so where has the change been initiated and by whom is it lead. Further, how does the variation in Auckland English compare other communities studied, both in terms of studies of relative clause variation and variation in super-diverse cities. These questions derive from an exploration of the history of relative clauses in English. In chapter 2, I review how the current variable system of relative markers developed and how they have been treated both by syntacticians and variationists in previous literature. The purpose of a (restrictive) relative clause is to delimit the denotational reference of an antecedent head nominal that it post-modifies (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 1034–1035). As such, variation in the choice of complementiser that introduces relative clauses tells us a great deal about how speakers specify information. The variability of relative markers is highly circumscribed (Ball 1996, Levey 2014). Nevertheless, the syntactic and social factors governing their distribution vary between speech communities and can offer insight into the linguistic profiles of these communities (Tagliamonte et al 2005, D’Arcy and Tagliamonte 2010). This study analyses over 2000 tokens of relative clauses, coded for syntactic environment and speaker age, sex and community. Three communities, chosen for their differing demographic profiles, are sampled across Auckland. Significant predictors of relative marker choice are then compared to other studies of relative clause variation. This thesis then explores (i) which factors are universal or common predictors of relativiser choice, (ii) which factors index Auckland English and (iii) which are markers of specific communities within Auckland. Previous studies of superdiverse cities (cf. Cheshire et al. 2015) have shown that the input of many diverse language varieties into a community can lead to large scale innovation and change. I explore the variation in relative markers in Auckland English in this context. Little evidence of language change taking place is found in this study and in fact, social factors such as age-grading patterns may suggest stable variation. There is some evidence of levelling (Trudgill 2004) in the most diverse of the three communities surveyed. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the significance of these results, both to the study of relative clauses and linguistic variation in general.</p>

“All the people who live in Auckland”: A study of subject and non-subject relative clauses in Auckland English

<p>This thesis is a study of the variation in relative marker choice by speakers of Auckland English. The data used in this study was collected as part of “Breaking Babel – Rethinking Language Change in a super-diverse city” (Meyerhoff et al. 2015). The thesis investigates the syntactic and social conditioning on the variation of the complementisers used to introduce relative clauses in the speech of a diverse group of Aucklanders. As a super-diverse city with a rapidly changing sociolinguistic profile, Auckland offers a rich source of data. This research explores how syntactic variation marks speakers of “Auckland English”. This work addresses several key research questions which centre on whether there is evidence of language change for this variable, and if so where has the change been initiated and by whom is it lead. Further, how does the variation in Auckland English compare other communities studied, both in terms of studies of relative clause variation and variation in super-diverse cities. These questions derive from an exploration of the history of relative clauses in English. In chapter 2, I review how the current variable system of relative markers developed and how they have been treated both by syntacticians and variationists in previous literature. The purpose of a (restrictive) relative clause is to delimit the denotational reference of an antecedent head nominal that it post-modifies (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 1034–1035). As such, variation in the choice of complementiser that introduces relative clauses tells us a great deal about how speakers specify information. The variability of relative markers is highly circumscribed (Ball 1996, Levey 2014). Nevertheless, the syntactic and social factors governing their distribution vary between speech communities and can offer insight into the linguistic profiles of these communities (Tagliamonte et al 2005, D’Arcy and Tagliamonte 2010). This study analyses over 2000 tokens of relative clauses, coded for syntactic environment and speaker age, sex and community. Three communities, chosen for their differing demographic profiles, are sampled across Auckland. Significant predictors of relative marker choice are then compared to other studies of relative clause variation. This thesis then explores (i) which factors are universal or common predictors of relativiser choice, (ii) which factors index Auckland English and (iii) which are markers of specific communities within Auckland. Previous studies of superdiverse cities (cf. Cheshire et al. 2015) have shown that the input of many diverse language varieties into a community can lead to large scale innovation and change. I explore the variation in relative markers in Auckland English in this context. Little evidence of language change taking place is found in this study and in fact, social factors such as age-grading patterns may suggest stable variation. There is some evidence of levelling (Trudgill 2004) in the most diverse of the three communities surveyed. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the significance of these results, both to the study of relative clauses and linguistic variation in general.</p>

Use of transcriptional age grading technique to determine the chronological age of Sri Lankan Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus females

Background Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus are important vectors of human diseases such as dengue, chikungunya, and zika. In Sri Lanka, they have been responsible for transmitting dengue virus. One of the most important parameters influencing the likelihood of arbovirus transmission is the age structure of the mosquito population. However, mosquito age is difficult to measure with accuracy. This study aims to construct multivariate calibration models using the transcriptional abundance of three age-responsive genes: Ae15848 (calcium-binding protein), Ae8505 (structural component of cuticle), and Ae4274 (fizzy cell cycle/cell division cycle 20). Methods The transcriptional age-grading technique was applied to determine the chronological age of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus female mosquito populations from Sri Lanka using the age-responsive genes Ae15848, Ae8505, and Ae4274. Furthermore, Ae. aegypti samples obtained from colonies reared at two temperatures (23 and 27 °C) were used to investigate the influence of temperature on this age-grading technique. Expression levels of these three genes were quantified using reverse transcription qualitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and results were normalized against the housekeeping gene ribosomal gene S17 (RpS17). Results The expression of Ae15848 and Ae8505 decreased with the age of mosquitoes and showed the most significant and consistent change while expression of Ae4274 increased with age. The multivariate calibration models showed > 80% correlation between expression of these age-responsive genes and the age of female mosquitoes at both temperatures. At 27 °C the accuracy of age predictions using the models was 2.19 (± 1.66) days and 2.58 (± 2.06) days for Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus females, respectively. The accuracy of the model for Ae. aegypti at 23 °C was 3.42 (± 2.74) days. Conclusions An adult rearing temperature difference of 4 °C (23–27 °C) did not significantly affect the age predictions. The calibration models created during this study could be successfully used to estimate the age of wild Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes from Sri Lanka. Graphical Abstract

Interdental /s/ in Salvadoran Spanish:

This study provides a systematic account of the occurrence of interdental /s/ in Salvadoran Spanish and explores speakers’ attitudes toward its use. Specifically, it examines the linguistic, social, and stylistic contexts in which this understudied variant occurs, and it describes how the speakers construct meaning through it despite being a stigmatized variant. It was found that this variant is more likely to be observed in syllable-onset position both word-medially and initially. Additionally, it is more likely to be observed in casual style in the youngest and oldest age groups and it is less likely observed in the speech of professionals. There are indications that this variant is associated with an age-grading phenomena, which is also indicative of stable variation. The present work fills an almost a 30+ year old gap left by previous studies that only briefly touched upon this variant.

The urban Tlemcenian glottal stop in a prospective coma due to contact and accommodation: A cross-sectional investigation

Although many researchers have attempted to include age as a variable in explaining linguistic variation, the delicate mechanisms via which variability in speech relates to age-grading aspect are still incomplete in especially lesser-known Arabic-speaking communities akin to Tlemcen, an urban city in Algeria. This paper aims at cross-sectionally investigating the sociolinguistic situation occurring in the Tlemcen speech community especially concerning the use of the glottal stop, an urban realisation of classical Arabic qaf. With the help of a survey interview, questionnaire and non-participant observation, data were collected from a convenient sample of 122 participants of different age cohorts and genders from Tlemcen. The results show that the dialect contact taking place in the community is moving towards aspects of koineisation, mainly levelling and simplification. Social and psychological features are said to explain the dialectal ruralisation guided by post-adolescent and young male native urban dialect speakers, while females of all ages, including old people, are strictly preservative. Keywords: Accommodation, age, dialect contact, glottal stop, Tlemcen, speech community.

The urban Tlemcenian glottal stop in a prospective coma due to contact and accommodation: A cross-sectional investigation

Although many researchers have attempted to include age as a variable in explaining linguistic variation, the delicate mechanisms via which variability in speech relates to age-grading aspect are still incomplete in especially lesser-known Arabic-speaking communities akin to Tlemcen, an urban city in Algeria. This paper aims at cross-sectionally investigating the sociolinguistic situation occurring in the Tlemcen speech community especially concerning the use of the glottal stop, an urban realisation of classical Arabic qaf. With the help of a survey interview, questionnaire and non-participant observation, data were collected from a convenient sample of 122 participants of different age cohorts and genders from Tlemcen. The results show that the dialect contact taking place in the community is moving towards aspects of koineisation, mainly levelling and simplification. Social and psychological features are said to explain the dialectal ruralisation guided by post-adolescent and young male native urban dialect speakers, while females of all ages, including old people, are strictly preservative.

Use of Transcriptional Age Grading Technique to Determine the Chronological Age of Sri Lankan Female Dengue Mosquitoes; Aedes Aegypti and Aedes Albopictus

Background: Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus are important vectors of human diseases such as dengue, chikungunya, and zika. In Sri Lanka, they have been responsible for transmitting the dengue virus. One of the most important parameters that affect the likelihood of arbovirus transmission is the age structure of the mosquito population. However, mosquito age is difficult to measure with accuracy. This study aims to construct Multivariate calibration models using the transcriptional abundance of three age responsive genes: Ae15848 (calcium-binding protein), Ae8505 (structural component of cuticle), and Ae4274 (fizzy cell cycle/cell division cycle 20). Methods: Transcriptional age grading technique was applied to determine the chronological age of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus female mosquito strains from Sri Lanka using the age responsive genes; Ae15848, Ae8505, and Ae4274. Further to investigate the influence of temperature on this age grading technique. Expression levels of these three genes were quantified using reverse transcription qualitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and results were normalized against the housekeeping gene ribosomal gene S17 (RsP17).Results: The expression of Ae15848 and Ae8505 decreased with the age of mosquitoes and, showed the most significant and consistent change while expression of Ae4274 increased with age. The multivariate calibration models showed more than 80% correlation between expression of these age responsive genes and the age of female mosquitoes at both temperatures. At 270C the accuracy of age predictions using the models was 2.19 (±1.66) and 2.58 (±2.06) days for Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus females, respectively. The accuracy of the model for Ae. aegypti at 230C was 3.42 (±2.74). Conclusions: An adult rearing temperature difference of 40C (230C to 270C) did not significantly affect the age predictions. The calibration models created during this study could be successfully used to estimate the age of wild Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes from Sri Lanka.

Variation and third age: A sociolinguistic perspective

The correlation between external factors such as age, gender, ethnic group membership and language variation is one of the stalwarts of sociolinguistic theory. The repertoire of individual members of speaker groups, vis-à-vis community-wide variation, represents a somewhat slippery ground for developing and testing models of variation and change and has been researched with reference to accommodation (Bell 1984), style shifting (Rickford, John R. & MacKenzie Price. 2013. Girlz II women: Age-grading, language change and stylistic variation. Journal of Sociolinguistics 17. 143–179) and language change generally (Labov, William. 2001. Principles of linguistic change, vol. 2: Social factors. Oxford: Blackwell). This paper presents and assesses some first quantitative evidence that non-mobile older speakers from Tristan da Cunha, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, who grew up in an utterly isolated speech community, vary and shift according to external interview parameters (interviewer, topic, place of interview). However, while they respond to the formality of the context, they display variation (both regarding speakers and variables) that is not in line with the constraints attested elsewhere. These findings are assessed with focus on the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence in third-age speakers (particularly style-shifting, Labov, William. 1964. Stages in the acquisition of Standard English. In Roger Shuy, Alva Davis & Robert Hogan (eds.), Social Dialects and Language Learning, 77–104. Champaign: National Council of Teachers of English) and across the life-span generally.