Vertex and region colorings of planar idempotent divisor graphs of commutative rings.

The idempotent divisor graph of a commutative ring R is a graph with vertices set in R* = R-{0}, and any distinct vertices x and y are adjacent if and only if x.y = e, for some non-unit idempotent element e2 = e ϵ R, and is denoted by Л(R). The purpose of this work is using some properties of ring theory and graph theory to find the clique number, the chromatic number and the region chromatic number for every planar idempotent divisor graphs of commutative rings. Also we show the clique number is equal to the chromatic number for any planar idempotent divisor graph. Among other results we prove that: Let Fq, Fpa are fieldes of orders q and pa respectively, where q=2 or 3, p is a prime number and a Is a positive integer. If a ring R @ Fq x Fpa . Then (Л(R))= (Л(R)) = *( Л(R)) = 3.

A Comparison between odd magic squares use in cryptographic algorithms.

This paper has been developed to compare encryption algorithms based on individual magic squares and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each algorithm or method. Where some positions of the magic square are assigned to the key and the remaining positions are assigned to the message, then the rows, columns and diagonals are summed and these results are as ciphertext and in the process of decryption the equations are arranged and solved by Gauss elimination metod. All algorithms were applied to encrypte the text and images, as well as using both GF(P) and GF(28), and the speed and complexity were calculated. The speed of MS9 by using GF(P) is 15.09085 Millie Second, while by using GF(28) it will be 18.94268 Millie Second, and the complexity is the value of the ASCII code raised to the exponent of the number of message locations multiplied by the value of the prime number raised to the exponent of the number of key locations.

A Dynamical Proof of the Prime Number Theorem

We present a new, elementary, dynamical proof of the prime number theorem.

Along the Lines of Nonadditive Entropies: q-Prime Numbers and q-Zeta Functions

The rich history of prime numbers includes great names such as Euclid, who first analytically studied the prime numbers and proved that there is an infinite number of them, Euler, who introduced the function ζ(s)≡∑n=1∞n−s=∏pprime11−p−s, Gauss, who estimated the rate at which prime numbers increase, and Riemann, who extended ζ(s) to the complex plane z and conjectured that all nontrivial zeros are in the R(z)=1/2 axis. The nonadditive entropy Sq=k∑ipilnq(1/pi)(q∈R;S1=SBG≡−k∑ipilnpi, where BG stands for Boltzmann-Gibbs) on which nonextensive statistical mechanics is based, involves the function lnqz≡z1−q−11−q(ln1z=lnz). It is already known that this function paves the way for the emergence of a q-generalized algebra, using q-numbers defined as ⟨x⟩q≡elnqx, which recover the number x for q=1. The q-prime numbers are then defined as the q-natural numbers ⟨n⟩q≡elnqn(n=1,2,3,⋯), where n is a prime number p=2,3,5,7,⋯ We show that, for any value of q, infinitely many q-prime numbers exist; for q≤1 they diverge for increasing prime number, whereas they converge for q>1; the standard prime numbers are recovered for q=1. For q≤1, we generalize the ζ(s) function as follows: ζq(s)≡⟨ζ(s)⟩q (s∈R). We show that this function appears to diverge at s=1+0, ∀q. Also, we alternatively define, for q≤1, ζqΣ(s)≡∑n=1∞1⟨n⟩qs=1+1⟨2⟩qs+⋯ and ζqΠ(s)≡∏pprime11−⟨p⟩q−s=11−⟨2⟩q−s11−⟨3⟩q−s11−⟨5⟩q−s⋯, which, for q<1, generically satisfy ζqΣ(s)<ζqΠ(s), in variance with the q=1 case, where of course ζ1Σ(s)=ζ1Π(s).

Distribution of Composite Numbers and Determination of Prime Numbers

Integer is either a composite number or a prime number. Therefore, detecting composite numbers is important for solving prime numbers. The study of prime numbers, apart from satisfying human curiosity, can be very important. In this article, the order of composite numbers has been detected. And explained with a simple method and a simple function. And, a method has been developed in which all composite numbers and therefore prime numbers can be determined by using the specified methods, functions and formulas.

Pseudo-Heronian triangles whose squares of the lengths of one or two sides are prime numbers

The authors introduced the concept of a pseudo-Heron triangle, such that squares of sides are integers, and the area is an integer multiplied by $2$. The article investigates the case of pseudo-Heron triangles such that the squares of the two sides of the pseudo-Heron triangle are primes of the form $4k+1$. It is proved that for any two predetermined prime numbers of the form $4k+1$ there exist pseudo-Heron triangles with vertices on an integer lattice, such that these two primes are the sides of these triangles and such triangles have a finite number. It is also proved that for any predetermined prime number of the form $4k+1$, there are isosceles triangles with vertices on an integer lattice, such that this prime is equal to the values of two sides and there are only a finite number of such triangles.

The Nicolas Criterion for the Riemann Hypothesis

In mathematics, the Riemann hypothesis is a conjecture that the Riemann zeta function has its zeros only at the negative even integers and complex numbers with real part $\frac{1}{2}$. For every prime number $p_{n}$, we define the sequence $X_{n} = \prod_{q \leq p_{n}} \frac{q}{q-1} - e^{\gamma} \times \log \theta(p_{n})$, where $\theta(x)$ is the Chebyshev function and $\gamma \approx 0.57721$ is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. The Nicolas criterion states that the Riemann hypothesis is true if and only if $X_{n} > 0$ holds for all primes $p_{n} > 2$. For every prime number $p_{k} > 2$, $X_{k} > 0$ is called the Nicolas inequality. We prove that the Nicolas inequality holds for all primes $p_{n} > 2$. In this way, we demonstrate that the Riemann hypothesis is true.

Distribution of Composite Numbers and Determination of Prime Numbers

Integer is either a composite number or a prime number. Therefore, detecting composite numbers is important for solving prime numbers. The study of prime numbers, apart from satisfying human curiosity, can be very important. In this article, the order of composite numbers has been detected. And explained with a simple method and a simple function. And, a method has been developed in which all composite numbers and therefore prime numbers can be determined by using the specified methods, functions and formulas.