Classical Epic in the Works of J.R.R. Tolkien

<p>The Lord of the Rings has often been described as an 'epic', and although Tolkien drew most famously on Northern mythology in his creation of Middle-earth much of his work also bears similarities to classical epic, both with regard to particular characters and archetypes and to more general themes and motifs. This thesis examines the connections between The Lord of the Rings and the epics of Homer and Virgil, investigating the manner in which these allusions function in Tolkien and how they contribute to our understanding of Middleearth as at least partially an epic world with epic ideals of heroism. At the same time, however, it identifies the ways in which Tolkien changes or subverts such classical ideals and archetypes as they combine with other cultural influences. Following the model established in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings begins with the folk-tale heroes and setting of the Shire before gradually moving into an epic world. Not only heroes such as Aragorn, but less obviously epic heroes such as Gandalf, Frodo and Sam, draw frequently on the iconography and motifs associated with specific and general classical figures, while women such as Arwen, Eowyn and Galadriel can similarly be read as part of classical tradition. Moreover, despite the purely fictional nature of Middle-earth in contrast to the historical (if mythologised) cultures of classical epic, The Lord of the Rings contains many examples of epic type-scenes that in classical epic illustrate the correct manner in which a hero should behave both in peace and in battle. The Lord of the Rings' relationship to epic is complex, however, not only employing these heroic and epic conventions but also subverting or superseding them as Tolkien engages with the problems of classical motifs within a very different universe. The heroes and heroines of The Lord of the Rings must navigate codes of behaviour both classical and non-classical, and willingly relinquish those out of place in the new age being born around them. This tension between old and new codes of behaviour is made more explicit during the book's twin 'returns', that of Aragorn to Minas Tirith and the hobbits to the Shire. Although these continue to draw extensively on classical predecessors, most notably Aeneas' prophesised arrival in Latium and Odysseus' famous homecoming, these predecessors are also superseded as Middle-earth moves into the Fourth Age. While The Hobbit moves from folk tale to epic and back again, The Lord of the Rings moves from folk-tale to epic to somewhere “beyond the epic” (Flieger 145), and as the book draws to its elegiac conclusion pure classical values become increasingly supplanted by the book’s own heroic code, influenced by many heroic traditions and overwhelmingly by Tolkien's Catholic beliefs. In the end, The Lord of the Rings can perhaps be read as an epic about the passing of epic, and thus an epic for the modern world.</p>

Classical Epic in the Works of J.R.R. Tolkien

<p>The Lord of the Rings has often been described as an 'epic', and although Tolkien drew most famously on Northern mythology in his creation of Middle-earth much of his work also bears similarities to classical epic, both with regard to particular characters and archetypes and to more general themes and motifs. This thesis examines the connections between The Lord of the Rings and the epics of Homer and Virgil, investigating the manner in which these allusions function in Tolkien and how they contribute to our understanding of Middleearth as at least partially an epic world with epic ideals of heroism. At the same time, however, it identifies the ways in which Tolkien changes or subverts such classical ideals and archetypes as they combine with other cultural influences. Following the model established in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings begins with the folk-tale heroes and setting of the Shire before gradually moving into an epic world. Not only heroes such as Aragorn, but less obviously epic heroes such as Gandalf, Frodo and Sam, draw frequently on the iconography and motifs associated with specific and general classical figures, while women such as Arwen, Eowyn and Galadriel can similarly be read as part of classical tradition. Moreover, despite the purely fictional nature of Middle-earth in contrast to the historical (if mythologised) cultures of classical epic, The Lord of the Rings contains many examples of epic type-scenes that in classical epic illustrate the correct manner in which a hero should behave both in peace and in battle. The Lord of the Rings' relationship to epic is complex, however, not only employing these heroic and epic conventions but also subverting or superseding them as Tolkien engages with the problems of classical motifs within a very different universe. The heroes and heroines of The Lord of the Rings must navigate codes of behaviour both classical and non-classical, and willingly relinquish those out of place in the new age being born around them. This tension between old and new codes of behaviour is made more explicit during the book's twin 'returns', that of Aragorn to Minas Tirith and the hobbits to the Shire. Although these continue to draw extensively on classical predecessors, most notably Aeneas' prophesised arrival in Latium and Odysseus' famous homecoming, these predecessors are also superseded as Middle-earth moves into the Fourth Age. While The Hobbit moves from folk tale to epic and back again, The Lord of the Rings moves from folk-tale to epic to somewhere “beyond the epic” (Flieger 145), and as the book draws to its elegiac conclusion pure classical values become increasingly supplanted by the book’s own heroic code, influenced by many heroic traditions and overwhelmingly by Tolkien's Catholic beliefs. In the end, The Lord of the Rings can perhaps be read as an epic about the passing of epic, and thus an epic for the modern world.</p>

RESSIGNIFICANDO O HEROÍSMO ÉPICO CLÁSSICO: SOLANO TRINDADE EM "CANTO DOS PALMARES"

This work starts from the analysis of Solano Trindade’s "Canto dos Palmares". We seek to highlight, through the theorization of Anazildo Vasconcelos da Silva (2017), how the poet intertwines a hybrid repertoire of Afro-Brazilian references without losing the dialogue with classical epic poetry. We see that the construction of the heroism of Zumbidos Palmares forges a new epic subject, structured by the real, mythical dimension, and diluted in national identity. The collective struggle of black population is associated with “quilombismo", formulated by Abdias Nascimento (2019), and Brazilian, epic of nineteenth century, whose base maintains a close relationship with bandeirismo in the Parnasiana epic. Thus, the rereading of the national formation rests on the dedication of love to life and in defense of freedom.

“Women Must Weep—Or Unite Against War”: Virginia Woolf’s Feminist Critique of Classical Epic in To the Lighthouse

Previous scholarship on Virginia Woolf’s classicism has acknowledged her debt to Vergil primarily in the context of the Eclogues or Georgics, and her debt to classical epic as a genre rarely and sparsely. Tremper (1992) and Tudeau-Clayton (2006) have both suggested a reading of “The Lighthouse,” the third part of To the Lighthouse, as an example of modernist epic. This paper, conversely, proposes that the novel in its entirety functions as a satirical critique of epic, specifically of Vergil’s Aeneid, with the goal of demonstrating the pitfalls of epic ideology as it impacted English society during the First World War.

PECULIARITIES OF ASI VOLOSHINA'S INSCENING: "SHINEL GOGOL"

The paper deals with the problem of translating a classical epic text into the language of drama. Based on the material of the plays of Asya Voloshina, it is proved that the modern playwright enters into a dialogue with his predecessor in order to see the classics in the context of the "big time". In the play "Gogol's Overcoat", the text of the original source is presented as part of the St. Petersburg text. The latter discovers new meanings of Gogol's story.

The Adaption of Self-Reflexivity and Metafiction Approach to Myth and History in Shashi Tharoor's the Great Indian Novel: A Post-Modernist Study

Shashi Tharoor's The Great Indian Novel is an example of a post-modern historiographic metafiction that takes the relationship between reality and fiction into consideration. This novel also depicts the 20th century political past by reviving events, incidents and characters of the myth of Mahabharata. The current paper aims to explain how Tharoor rebuilds the twentieth-century past by drawing on the great Mahabharata classical epic. Additionally, it examines the common relationship between fiction and history as it progressed along and continuous processes through the use of self-reflexivity and metafiction approach. In The Great Indian Novel, Tharoor adapts a metafiction tool which is the most fitting way to tackle this novel as a postmodernist study. Tharoor blends fiction and fact through a self-reflective narrative and the use of several metafiction devices by adapting the myth of Mahabharata to construct the distance between the past and the present. Tharoor takes the ancient myth as the basic structure with contemporary group of political characters for a real and ironic review of recent Indian history and representation.

Bhishma as a Superman in the Mahabharata

This article explores and interprets Bhishma, one of the great heroes in the classical epic the Mahabharata, from the perspective of superman that the great philosopher Nietzsche postulates in his great work Thus Spoke Zarathustra. The superman is one of the alluring concepts in the domain of entire philosophy. He has his own ideals, standards, and thus becomes the creator of his own self. Sacrificing himself for the morals and dignity, he becomes an emblem for the righteousness, truth, and virtues. He stands for the sake of justice and righteousness, and suffers to rise himself even beyond the dualities of the world. Nietzsche’s superman is a man transcendent. Bhishma, in the great epic the Mahabharata, also establishes his own values. He suffers a lot, but does not surrender. As a superman, the more difficulties he faces, the more he fills himself with new vibrations and vitalism in his life. His great pledge and his self sacrifice for the truth really transform him into a superman. Therefore, the creative evolution of Bhishma mirrors the genuine ideals of the superman. This paper applies the qualitative approach, and attempts to add a new dimension while interpreting and exploring the ideations of superman in one of the great heroes from the longest epic the Mahabharata.

Tasso Torquato

Torquato Tasso (b. 1544–d. 1595) is best known today for his narrative poem Gerusalemme liberata (1581), often considered the first successful classical epic in the Italian vernacular. This work recounts the final year of the First Crusade (1099), combining a manifestly classical structure, based on the models of Virgil and Homer, with a profound attention to the passionate inner lives of its characters, both Christian and otherwise. Yet Tasso was a prolific writer, composing works across a wide range of genres, including lyric, pastoral, tragedy, as well as many philosophical dialogues. He was also an important theorist of poetic genre, working within a markedly Aristotelian paradigm. Born in Sorrento, Tasso traveled frequently in his youth among the courts of central and northern Italy accompanying his father Bernardo, a courtier and well-known poet. The younger Tasso later studied philosophy at the University of Padua, where he developed a substantial knowledge of Aristotelian philosophy. In the same period, he frequented literary salons, engaging enthusiastically in debates about literature. A precocious youth, Tasso published his first work, the chivalric romance Rinaldo (1562), when only eighteen years old. In the mid-1560s, his evident abilities led him to join the court of the powerful Este family in Ferrara, where he would compose his greatest works: the pastoral play Aminta (1573) and the epic Gerusalemme liberata (revised and completed by 1576). Following this period, his health, both physical and mental, began to deteriorate. In 1579, Alfonso II Duke of Ferrara imprisoned the poet in the Hospital of Sant’Anna, ostensibly for madness. During his confinement and after his eventual release in 1586, Tasso continued to write prolifically. He completed a large number of philosophical dialogues, the tragedy Il re Torrismondo (1587), a rewritten version of his epic known as Gerusalemme conquistata (1593), and the cosmological poem Il mondo creato (printed posthumously, 1607). During his lifetime, Tasso’s fame extended widely: Montaigne claims to have personally witnessed the poet’s “madness,” and Queen Elizabeth I was reported to have memorized sections of the Gerusalemme liberata and inquired about his health. Tasso’s work had an immediate influence not only on the course of European literature (such as on the works of Spenser, Cervantes, and Milton), but also on various other fields, including painting, music, and opera. This article offers an introductory bibliographical overview of Tasso, his large number of works, and his reception in literature and the arts.

Robert Musil’s short stories: a dialogue of literary tradition and the author’s innovation

The article deals with the analysis of the artistic technique of short stories by Robert Musil, an Austrian writer, through the prism of combining literary traditions of German – language short stories and the author’s innovation. In the scope of theoretical study of novel characteristics such short stories as „The Perfecting of Love”, „The Temptation of Quiet Veronica”, „Grigia”, „The Portuguese Lady”, „Tonka” from the collection of works „Unions” and „Three Women” help to point out the author’s definition in regard to the theory of modernist short story that is shown in Robert Musil’s essay „Short story as a problem”. Thus, the ways of realization of the theoretical bases of the literary tradition of the Austrian short story in combination with the consistent content formality of the author’s experimentalism are observed and highlighted. Its specific way of reproducing and combining the theoretical basis of the short story as a classical epic genre with individual authorial terms: „another state”, “possibility of suggestion, association and influence of mood”, „single case” and „commercial article” is shown. At the same time, the individual author’s synthesis of logic, psychologism and art is emphasized. A number of extensions of genre features of the poetics of R. Muzil’s short stories are outlined, and thus the exclusivity of the short story is pointed out as one of the most important forms of short prose of the end of the XIX – beginning of the XX century. It is concluded that this phenomenon is distinguished not as a complete break from traditional narrative structure of German short story, but as a specific opportunity to examine and analyse modern human consciousness.