Neural reinstatement tracks object-based attentional selection in working memory

Working memory (WM) is the ability to hold information in mind in the short-term and use it flexibly for behaviour. Not all items are represented equally in WM. Attention can be allocated to select and privilege relevant WM content. It is unclear whether attention selects individual features or whole objects in WM. Here, we used behavioural measures, eye-tracking and electroencephalography (EEG) to test the hypothesis that attentional selection spreads between an object's features in WM. Twenty-six participants (male and female) completed a WM task that asked them to recall the angle of one of two oriented, coloured bars after a delay while EEG and eye-tracking data was collected. During the delay, an orthogonal 'incidental task' cued the colour of one item for a match/mismatch judgement. On congruent trials (50%), the cued item was probed during memory recall; on incongruent trials (50%), the other memory item was probed. As predicted, selecting the colour of an object in WM brought other features of the cued object into an attended state as revealed by EEG decoding, oscillatory alpha-power, gaze bias and improved subsequent orientation recall performance. Together, the results build a case for object-based attentional selection in WM. Analyses of neural processing at recall revealed that the selected object was automatically compared with the probe, whether it was the target for recall or not, providing a potential mechanism for non-predictive cueing benefits in WM.

Selective Attention in Emotionally Disturbed/Behavior-Disordered Children

Hagen's Central-Incidental Task was administered to 27 emotionally disturbed/behavior disordered students, ages 9 to 13 yr., and 27 normal peers. Subjects were matched on chronological age, sex, and race. There were no significant differences in performance between the handicapped group and their normal peers on three measures—central task, incidental task, and efficiency of selective attention. In addition, no significant developmental trends were observed in either group. The results questioned the assumption that students labeled as emotionally disturbed/behavior disordered have deficits in selective attention.

Locus of Control: Perceived Contingency or Perceived Competence?

The hypothesis that the superior performance of internal in contrast to external subjects on a variety of tasks is based on perceived competence rather than on perceived contingency was examined. A Perceived Competence Scale and a Perceived Contingency Scale, derived from Collins' 1974 factor analysis of the Rotter 1966 Locus of Control Scale, were given to 100 subjects. Subjects then performed two intentional and two incidental tasks. Stepwise multiple regression analyses for each dependent measure, with scores on the three scales as independent variables, provided partial support for the hypothesis. Only scores on the Perceived Competence Scale contributed to variance on the first intentional and first incidental task. None of the comparisons were statistically significant for the other two dependent measures. The voluminous literature showing superior performance by internally scoring subjects may not provide as much support for the locus of control construct as is currently thought. A perceived competence dimension within the Locus of Control Scale may be responsible for the superiority of internally scoring subjects on a variety of tasks and personality measures.

Incidental Prose Learning

Incidental tasks were used to induce limited cognitive processes during reading in two groups. These groups did not expect a test. A control group was informed in detail about all aspects of the final test. Study time was unlimited for all groups. All groups were given a final test of recall for facts and conclusions from three passages. Recall in the incidental task groups was superior or equivalent to recall in the intentional learning group, indicating that the cognitive processes induced in the incidental groups were sufficient for learning.

Modeling and Attention of Mentally Retarded, Learning Disabled, and Normal Boys

Fifteen mentally retarded, 15 learning disabled, and 15 normal boys were equated on mental age and individually administered the Hagen Central-Incidental Task and presented a modeling tape for imitation. The results of this study suggest that mentally retarded children exhibit attention deficits when compared to MA-equivalent normals. The performances on attention tasks of the learning disabled children did not differ at the .05 level from the performances of the MA-equivalent normals. However, the mentally retarded and learning disabled children learned via observation as well as MA-equivalent normals. Central and incidental attention scores of the entire sample (N = 45) were significantly (p< .05) correlated to modeling scores. The findings of this study are compared with other investigations concerned with either attentional processes or observational learning characteristics of mentally retarded or learning disabled children.

Selective Attention and Cognitive Tempo of Low Achieving and High Achieving Sixth Grade Males

There is much clinical and subjective support for the notion that academic underachievers of normal intelligence (learning disabled children) exhibit both impulsivity and poor attention. This study compared high and low achieving children on two experimental tasks previously designed to measure impulsivity (Kagan's MFF) and selective attention (Hagen's Central-Incidental Task). Results generated empirical support for more impulsivity and less selective attention in low achievers than high achievers. Results indicated the 2 measures were correlated, suggesting a link between selective attention and cognitive tempo.

Influence of Degree of Intentional Learning upon the Performance of an Incidental Task

Incidental learning was measured at various stages of intentional learning. Results indicated the best performance on the incidental learning task took place at the initial and terminal stages of intentional learning. It was hypothesized that Ss respond to a number of irrelevant stimuli at the onset of a problem, thereby experiencing more of the problem's incidental aspects. As behavior becomes increasingly dependent upon relevant cues, sampling of the irrelevant (incidental) cues is minimized. Incidental learning decreases, therefore, Ss training increases. This process occurs to a point, then reverses. When the task set by E is seen as mastered, S begins seeking additional information from the stimuli present, resulting again in considerable incidental learning. The results and proposed explanations were believed to be in accordance with an earlier study by Bahrick (1957).