Congenital breast anomalies include supernumerary nipples (polythelia) and supernumerary breasts (polymastia) which can be generally found on the embryonic mammary ridge. Absence of the breast occurs less frequently and varying presentations of absence of nipples only (athelia), absence of mammary gland tissue (amazia), or absence of the entire breast (amastia). Tuberous breast deformity is a common congenital anomaly with varying degrees of constriction, hypoplasia, areolar herniation, skin deficiency, and asymmetry. Treatment consists of breast augmentation, either primarily or after tissue expansion, in combination with mastopexy. Gynaecomastia is the development of breast tissue in males. The aetiology is diverse and includes physiological, pathological, acquired, drug-related, and idiopathic causes. Poland syndrome is discussed elsewhere (Chapter 9.2).
Tuberous breast: Morphological study and overview of a borderline entity
