AbstractTelomere length (TL) predicts health and lifespan in humans and other organisms, making the identification of the causes of TL variation of interest. At conception, zygotes inherit genes that regulate TL during early development, but at the same time already express a phenotype, which is the TL of the parental gametes that formed the zygote. Whether the effect of gamete TL is transient or affects TL for life depends on the extent to which regulatory genes compensate for gamete TL variation during early development. A carry-over effect of parental TL, resulting in epigenetic inheritance, has been suggested to explain the observed relationship between parental age and offspring TL in humans and other species. However, reports of parental age effects are based on cross-sectional data, and age at reproduction has numerous confounds. Furthermore, parental age may affect offspring telomere dynamics between conception and sampling, which could also explain the paternal age effect. Using longitudinal telomere data of jackdaw parents and their chicks, we show that chicks hatched with shorter telomeres as individual fathers aged, whereas mother age had no effect. By cross-fostering eggs, we confirmed the paternal age effect to be independent of paternal care after conception. The epigenetic effect accounted for 34% of the variance in offspring TL that was explained by paternal telomere length; the remaining 66% we ascribe to a combination of environmental and additive genetic effects. Thus, our results strongly indicate epigenetic inheritance of TL, with potential consequences for offspring fitness prospects.Significance statementTelomeres are DNA-protein structures at chromosome ends and their length predicts remaining lifespan in humans and other organisms. Variation in telomere length is thought to be largely of genetic origin, but telomere inheritance may be unusual because a fertilised cell already has a telomere length (most traits are first expressed later in life). Telomeres shorten with age, and, using long-term individual-based data of jackdaw families, we show that as fathers aged, they produced chicks with shorter telomeres. This shows that paternal telomere length directly affects offspring telomere length, i.e. is inherited genetically but without the involvement of genes. This is known as an epigenetic effect and explained a large part (≥34%) of the telomere resemblance between fathers and their offspring.
Meta-analysis of telomere length in 19 713 subjects reveals high heritability, stronger maternal inheritance and a paternal age effect
