Withdrawal syndromes are clusters of signs and symptoms that occur with cessation or decrease in use of a substance. All substance withdrawal syndromes are classified and diagnosed based on criteria published in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5). All withdrawal syndromes range in their ability to cause significant medical and/or psychiatric consequences. Alcohol withdrawal remains a medically serious syndrome that can occur within hours to days of decreased use and result in hallucinations, delirium, seizures, and death. Despite increasing research into the type, frequency, dose, and route of administration, benzodiazepines remain the first-line treatment in preventing alcohol withdrawal complications. Although typically not medically severe, opioid withdrawal is often associated with relapse even after successful detoxification. Opioid-agonist therapy, including methadone and buprenorphine, remains the treatment of choice for both opioid withdrawal and relapse prevention. Stimulant withdrawal from cocaine or amphetamines can cause significant psychiatric symptoms within minutes to hours of cessation and may require psychiatric hospitalization for suicidal ideation or attempts. There are no current medications approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of stimulant withdrawal. Cannabis withdrawal, although not medically dangerous, has recently been adopted as a discrete syndrome in the DSM-5. Its severity correlates significantly with the amount of cannabis used, functional impairment, and ability to achieve sustained remission. There are no current medications approved by the FDA for treatment of cannabis withdrawal.
This review contains 6 figures, 13 tables, and 101 references.
Key words: alcohol, amphetamine, benzodiazepines, buprenorphine, cannabis, clonidine, cocaine, dexmedetomidine, methadone, opioid, phenobarbital, stimulant, withdrawal
