The impact of cloudiness on the global radiative budget and its climatic consequences have been widely discussed during the last three decades. It was gradually recognized that the climatic effect of cloudiness depends on its height: low- and middle-level cloudiness have a total cooling effect on the Earth climatic system, while the upper-level clouds, cirrus, may have mostly a warming effect (IPCC 1995). The net effect of cirrus (i.e., warming or cooling), is much less clear because neither their microphysical and optical properties, nor the processes that govern their formation, are well understood and parameterized in climate models. These uncertainties have stimulated several major field projects performed within the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP; Rossow and Schiffer 1991) with subsequent data analysis reports [e.g., FIRE IFO-I (1990), FIRE IFO-II (1995), and EUCREX (Raschke et al. 1996)]. The relevant theoretical works, and even the simplest climate models, indicate that the climatic impact of cirrus depends on their microstructure: clouds composed of small crystals with effective radii less than about 16 μm have a total cooling effect, but clouds of larger crystals have a warming effect (Stephens et al. 1990). It was shown that the total cloud forcing at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) is positive from a few to a few tens of watts per square meter for the large crystals and decreases with decreasing crystal radius (Fu and Liou 1993). Most of the previous theoretical studies of cirrus radiative properties, after choosing some model of microphysics and some values for the mass extinction and absorption coefficients, then prescribed them to the whole cloud, neglecting any vertical variations. Simulations with general circulation models (GCMs) showed that cirrus clouds with their optical properties parameterized in such a way (i.e., constant with height) have a total warming effect and positive feedbacks with respect to greenhouse gas-induced global warming (e.g., Ramanathan et al. 1983; Wetherald and Manabe 1988). Today, the estimation of the warming/cooling effect of cirrus has become even more complicated due to two factors. First, for many years the usual in situ probes allowed the measurement of ice crystals with radii only larger than 25-50 μm, so the smallest and most optically and radiatively active crystals were unresolved.
The Optical Properties of Black Coatings and Their Estimated Cooling Effect and Cooling Energy Savings Potential