Cross-countries differences in exporting perfomance, and differences in productivity, wages and innovation rates between exporting and non-exporting firms in Brazil

In this research we investigate whether more technologically complex countries have better trade perfomance and whether exporting firms in Brazil tend to perform better in terms of productivity, innovation and wages when compared with non-exporting firms. For that, we employed formal tests for distributional equality as proposed by Fligner and Policello (1981). Results show that most technologically complex countries tend to have better trade perfomance and exporting firms tend to perform better in terms of productivity and pay higher average wages when compared with non-exporting firms. However, tests for innovation perfomance differences between exporting and non-exporting firms are inconclusive.

2. Theories of Democratization

This chapter examines the factors that have been proposed as determinants when, where, and why democratization happens. Several of these factors are synthesized into a broader framework that describes human empowerment as an evolutionary force channelling the intentions and strategies of actors towards democratic outcomes. The chapter first provides an overview of the nature and origin of democracy before discussing how democracy and democratization are affected by social divisions and distributional equality as well as modernization, international conflicts, regime alliances, elite pacts, mass mobilization, state repression, colonial legacies, religious traditions, and institutional configurations. The chapter concludes by presenting a typology of democratization processes, which includes responsive democratization, enlightened democratization, opportunistic democratization, and imposed democratization.

6. Theories of Democratization

This chapter examines the factors that have been proposed as determinants when, where, and why democratization happens. Several of these factors are synthesized into a broader framework that describes human empowerment as an evolutionary force channelling the intentions and strategies of actors towards democratic outcomes. The chapter first provides an overview of the nature and origin of democracy before discussing how democracy and democratization are affected by social divisions and distributional equality as well as modernization, international conflicts, regime alliances, elite pacts, mass mobilization, state repression, colonial legacies, religious traditions, and institutional configurations. The chapter concludes by presenting a typology of democratization processes, which includes responsive democratization, enlightened democratization, opportunistic democratization, and imposed democratization.