A Blockchain Token-Based Trading Model for Secondary Spectrum Markets in Future Generation Mobile Networks

Cognitive radio (CR) technology offers the possibility of an increase in spectrum utilization efficiency to resolve the prevalent spectrum scarcity problem. The economic survival of secondary spectrum markets (SSMs) is heavily dependent on the sharing of both the licensed spectrum and spectrum infrastructure by primary licensed operators (PLOs). In this research, an automated pricing model using a blockchain token called the spectrum dollar has been implemented for secondary radio spectrum trade. The use of spectrum dollars enables noncash-based secondary spectrum trade among PLOs based on a floor-and-trade rule. The pricing of spectrum dollars and the associated revenue shares are based on the underlying secondary spectrum trading behaviours of PLOs. PLOs that do not contribute enough secondary spectra to the SSM (to satisfy demand) suffer a loss proportional to the difference between their earned revenues and the specified floor value in the SSM. The secondary spectrum trade is assumed to be centrally managed by a spectrum broker, which announces the floor value for each bidding period while ensuring nonnegative revenue for the market itself. The use of the spectrum dollar along with the floor-and-trade methodology eliminates the possibilities for economic malpractice by PLOs that could increase spectrum reuse costs. In addition, the floor value provides automatic regulatory control to ensure the economic viability and prevent the technological hijacking of future SSMs.

Charter Schools

Whatever is good about market society at its observable, realistic best boils down to the bilateral right to say no. Whatever is good about market society boils down to how well it works as a way of institutionalizing an expectation that people will respect each other as self-owners. At the other end of the realistic spectrum, markets at their observable worst are heavily subsidized, with products that over time become increasingly expensive and obsolete. This indefensible variation on the theme of market logic operates in many industries, including publicly funded and publicly delivered systems of education.