An Examination of the Punishment Motif in the Book of the Watchers 10:4–8 in Light of Greek Myths

The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1–38; BW) describes a series of punishments that God renders against Asael (10:4–8). Several scholars have tried to identify possible traditions that stand behind these punishments in light of Jewish and Greek literatures. However, Henryk Drawnel recently challenges such attempts, positing a Mesopotamian background. Although Drawnel has shown that interacting with Mesopotamian literatures has something to offer in grasping a fuller understanding of the mentioned passage, this article argues that Greek literatures are still valuable sources, potentially shedding further light on the design of the punishment motifs in BW. In order to demonstrate this supposition, I interact with the myths of Prometheus, Tantalus, and Teiresias. Ultimately, I suggest that scholars should be open to the possibility that various traditions, rather than a single tradition, stand behind the punitive descriptions in BW 10:4–8.

„Zaklinać [się] i przysięgać” (Mk 14,71; Mt 26,74)

The wording describing Peter's third denial: "curse and swear" gave rise to several contradictory interpretations. Some think that it is hendiadys meaning nothing but swearing. Advocates of the transitive sense of the verb ἀναθεματίζω try to guess who is the object of Peter's curse. The dominant view is that Peter curses Jesus. Others think that Peter curses himself or those who accuse him. But formula "curse and swear" appears in the Henochic myth about fallen angels (1 Hen 6:4.5.6). Peter, who denies Jesus, resembles one of the fallen angels, who opposed God's will on Mount Hermon and separated themselves from God. The following pattern, which can be observed in the First Book of Enoch (1-6): the revelation of God, the announcement of the Last Judgment and the fall of those who belong to God appear in the Gospels of Mark and Matthew twice: in Caesarea Philippi (Mark 8:27-38, Matt 16:13-28 ) and in the Caiaphas palace (Mark 14:53-75, Matt 26:57-72). The apocryphal context helps to understand that the curse always touches one who opposes God. Throwing a curse on yourself is confirmed by examples from ancient culture.

Idumea and Idumeans in the Light of the Pseudepigrapha

This article offers the first-ever comprehensive philological and historical commentary on possible historical allusions to the Idumeans in the following Pseudepigrapha: Pseudo-Aristeas, Judith, Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Apocalypse of Enoch, 1 Esdras, and 4 Ezra. This study argues that references to the Idumeans in the Pseudepigrapha (mostly hidden under the figure of Esau or sons of Esau) are of a very general character and as such are of little use to modern historians. Most passages are only literary expressions of the Judeans’ long-standing tradition of hostility towards the Edomites/Idumeans. Only in a few cases may we speak about general echoes of particular historical events. In 1 Esd. 4.50 and Jub. 37.1–38.14, an advanced Idumean settlement is reflected west of Arabah and south of Judea. Based on the archaeology, this settlement may have started as early as in the eighth century BCE and over time led to the emergence of a new province called Idumea in the Hellenistic period. The second-century BCE Maccabean–Idumean conflict is also echoed in several Pseudepigrapha. In general, the book of Judith reflects the strategic role of mountain passes and the use of lightly armed troops in Maccabean times. In turn, Jub. 37.1–38.14 and the T. Jud. 9.1–4 were written from a specific historical angle created by the Hasmonean conquest of Idumea, but their use of topography and chronology is so simplified that they cannot be employed by modern historians for the reconstruction of the course of the Hasmonean–Idumean conflict. Instead, both books express the ideology of territorial rights, disguised as patriarchal history. Finally, 1 Esd. 5.29 and 8.66 appear to express the ambivalent situation of the Idumeans after conversion: though they became part of the Judean community, the notion of their ethnic distinctiveness and inferiority survived.

Ritual, Order and the Construction of an Audience in 1 Enoch 1–36

Drawing on performance theory and ritual theory, this essay argues that the authors of 1 En. 1–36 artfully draw the audience into their imagined world. In chs. 1–5, the text employs a variety of ritualized speech forms from the audience’s habitus in order to tap into and form the members’ dispositions. Once the narrative of the Fall of the Watchers commences, the audience can find its place within the narrative through the ritual actions reported in the text. Thereby, the experience of encountering the text also gives shape to the audience’s lived experiences.