Historical Loss: Implications for Health of American Indians in the Blackfeet Community

Background Historical loss in American Indians (AIs) is believed to contribute to high incidence of mental health disorders, yet less is known about the associations between historical loss and physical health. Purpose To investigate whether frequency of thought about historical loss predicts risk factors for chronic physical health conditions in an AI community. Methods Using Community Based Participatory research (CBPR) and Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), we measured frequency of thoughts about historical loss in 100 AI adults residing on the Blackfeet reservation. Participants completed a 1-week monitoring period, during which ambulatory blood pressure and daily levels of psychological stress were measured. At the end of the week, we collected a dried blood spot sample for measurement of C-reactive protein (CRP). Results In hierarchical linear regression models controlling for demographics and relevant covariates, greater frequency of thoughts about historical loss predicted higher average daily psychological stress (B = .55, t = 6.47, p < .001, ΔR2 = .30) and higher levels of CRP (B = .33, t = 3.93, p < .001, ΔR2 = .10). Using linear mixed modeling with relevant covariates, we found that greater thoughts about historical loss were associated with higher systolic ambulatory blood pressure (B = .32, 95% CI = .22–.42, t = 6.48, p < .001, ΔR2 = .25; Fig. 1c) and greater diastolic ambulatory blood pressure (B = .19, 95% CI = .11–.27, t = 4.73, p < .001, ΔR2 = .19). Conclusions The data suggest that frequency of thought about historical loss may contribute to increased subclinical risk for cardiovascular disease in the Blackfeet community.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Immune System Inflammation in Adults Residing on the Blackfeet Reservation: The Moderating Role of Sense of Belonging to the Community

Background Previous research documents an association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and immune system inflammation. High chronic inflammation is believed to be one biological pathway through which childhood adversity may affect health into adulthood. The Blackfeet tribal community has high rates of childhood trauma and community members are disproportionately affected by inflammatory diseases. Purpose To investigate whether belonging to the tribal community may moderate the relationship between childhood trauma and immune system inflammation in the Blackfeet tribal community. Methods In a sample of 90 adults residing on the Blackfeet reservation, we measured ACEs belonging to the tribal community and two markers of immune system inflammation, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Results We found that independent of age, gender, annual income, body mass index, and depressive symptoms, belonging to the tribal community and ACEs interacted to predict levels of both IL-6 and CRP (B= −.37, t[81] = −3.82, p < .001, R2 change = .07 and B = −.29, t[81] = −2.75, p = .01, R2 change = .08, respectively). The association between ACEs and markers of immune system inflammation was statistically significant for community members who reported low levels of belonging to the community. Conclusions The findings of this study have important implications for intervention research seeking to reduce risk for inflammatory diseases for at-risk populations. Fostering stronger connections to the larger tribal community may positively affect risk for inflammatory diseases. Future work should examine the behavioral and psychosocial pathways through which stronger connections to community may confer health benefits.

Dispersal, survival, and reproduction of wild-born, yearling swift foxes in a reintroduced population

From 1998 to 2002, the Blackfeet Tribe and Defenders of Wildlife reintroduced 123 captive-reared swift foxes ( Vulpes velox (Say, 1823)) to the Blackfeet Reservation in northern Montana. Because yearling swift foxes are colonizers of vacant habitats and are at the periphery of range expansion, we estimated 1st-year survival and explored aspects of dispersal to ascertain the contribution of wild-born juveniles to the reintroduction effort. First-year survival (post den emergence) of swift foxes averaged 0.38 and 0.36 for 2003–2004 and 2004–2005, respectively. Half of the females that survived to 1 June of their 1st year reproduced. Most dispersal (77%) and mortality (85%) occurred in autumn, with 80% of mortalities attributable to predation. Dispersal distance was not different among sexes and averaged 10.4 km. Understanding the contribution of yearling swift foxes — the colonizers — to reestablishing populations is important because several entities are currently reintroducing swift foxes and some states have expanding populations.