The costs of mating with multiple partners include expenditure of energy and time and a reduction in lifespan, but females of many taxa mate with several different partners shortly after their first copulation. Often it is not clear what females gain from this behaviour. In this study, we used the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst, 1797) to test the hypothesis that females mate with multiple males for fertility assurance because the first copulation often does not lead to offspring production. We found that the probability of producing offspring, as measured by the proportion of females that produced offspring, was not affected by multiple mating when females were mated to virgin partners. However, when females were mated to nonvirgin partners, multiple mating led to an increased probability of producing offspring. To establish the mechanism through which multiple mating enhanced the probability of producing offspring, we further investigated whether this result was observed because multiple mating provided genetically compatible sperm or because it provided sufficient sperm. Viability of larvae from multiply mated females was higher than that of larvae from singly mated females, but the total number of adult offspring produced was not significantly different between the two groups. The capacity of males to inseminate females decreased in successive matings after the initial copulation, suggesting that ineffective copulations between virgin females and nonvirgin males are likely due to male sperm depletion. Therefore, mating with multiple males increased the probability that females would produce offspring and served as fertility assurance.
Sublethal Exposure to Phosphine Decreases Offspring Production in Strongly Phosphine Resistant Female Red Flour Beetles, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)