Abstract. Air quality forecast models typically predict large ozone abundances over water relative to land in the Great Lakes region. While each state bordering Lake Michigan has dedicated monitoring systems, offshore measurements have been sparse, mainly executed through specific short-term campaigns. This study examines ozone abundances over Lake Michigan as measured on the Lake Express ferry, by shoreline Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) observations in southeastern Wisconsin, and as predicted by the National Air Quality Forecast System. From 2008–2009 measurements of O3, SO2, NO2 and formaldehyde were made in the summertime by DOAS at a shoreline site in Kenosha, WI. From 2008–2010 measurements of ambient ozone conducted on the Lake Express, a high-speed ferry that travels between Milwaukee, WI and Muskegon, MI up to 6 times daily from spring to fall. Ferry ozone observations over Lake Michigan were an average of 3.8 ppb higher than those measured at shoreline in Kenosha with little dependence on position of the ferry or temperature but with highest differences during evening and night. Concurrent ozone forecast images from National Weather System's National Air Quality Forecast System in the upper Midwestern region surrounding Lake Michigan were saved over the ferry ozone sampling period in 2009. The bias of the model O3 forecast was computed and evaluated with respect to ferry-based measurements. The model 1 and 8 h ozone mean biases were both 12 ppb higher than observed ozone, and maximum daily 1 h ozone mean bias was 10 ppb, indicating substantial ozone over-prediction over water. Trends in the bias with respect to location and time of day or month were also explored showing non-uniformity in model bias. Extreme ozone events were predicted by the model but not observed by ferry measurements.
Ozone distributions over southern Lake Michigan: comparisons between ferry-based observations, shoreline-based DOAS observations and air quality forecast models
