By 1870 England had colonized over one-fifth of the world's landmasses. In 1776 Adam Smith revolutionized economic theory with the publication of The Wealth of Nations, setting the stage for a celebration of laissez-faire capitalism that continues today. In 1859 Samuel Smiles published Self Help, a text that would become a best seller and profoundly influence Victorian and modern ideas about human independence and endeavor. Charles Kingsley's sermons, which invoked the term “muscular Christianity,” linked athleticism and physical stamina with true masculinity and moral strength. Authors like Thomas Carlyle, from whose essay “Signs of the Times” the first part of my paper title is taken, increasingly aligned the ills of England's social body with the ills of individual bodies. And throughout the nineteenth century, as industrialization and urbanization radically altered life for millions, England struggled to cope with chronic and extreme poverty among the working classes, including starvation in the streets.