'Fortress Europe' and FRONTEX: Within or Without International Law?

2010 ◽  
Vol 79 (1) ◽  
pp. 75-111 ◽  
Author(s):  
Efthymios Papastavridis
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Member States ◽  
Eu Member States ◽  
Chattel Slavery ◽  
Present Context ◽  
Maritime Operations ◽  
Degrading Treatment ◽  
Fortress Europe ◽  
High Seas

AbstractIt is true that the problem of interception of human beings on the high seas is more acute than ever, not only in terms of the number of vessels intercepted but also in terms of the variety of legal issues that it raises. The most worrisome observation, however, is that while interception of human beings has been practiced for centuries, currently the pendulum has swung from interception to free and save lives, for example, in the context of chattel slavery, to interception to prevent people from entering developed States and claiming a better future. This is particularly reflected in the practice of EU Member States, which have taken many initiatives in the maritime domain to strengthen the external borders of 'fortress' Europe. Lately, this practice is coordinated by a European Agency, commonly referred to as FRONTEX, which was established in 2004 in order to "coordinate the operational cooperation between Member States in the field of external borders management". To this end, FRONTEX has launched a number of maritime interdiction operations carried out on the high seas and even further, i.e. in the territorial seas of States of departure or transit, such as Mauritania, Senegal, Cape Verde. The purpose of this article is to address the most important questions that these maritime operations of FRONTEX raise, analysing them through the lens of the law of the sea and other rules of corpus juris gentium. Accordingly, in the first part there will be a thorough discussion of the pertinent legal bases of the interception operations on the high seas and in the territorial waters, while in the second the analysis will focus more on the relevance of other international rules like the use of force or the principle of non-refoulement to the present context. The application of the latter principle appears to be especially problematic in the majority of these operations since it is very likely that the persons onboard the intercepted vessels would be forced to return to their countries of origin, where they may be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment.

scholarly journals Review of potential legal frameworks for effective implementation and enforcement of MPAs in the high seas

2014 ◽  
Vol 71 (5) ◽  
pp. 1031-1039 ◽  
Author(s):  
Odile Delfour-Samama ◽  
Cédric Leboeuf
Keyword(s):  
Integrated Approach ◽  
Appropriate Technology ◽  
Conservation Strategy ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Coastal Zones ◽  
Legal Norms ◽  
Technical Developments ◽  
Unpredictable Environment ◽  
Legal Frameworks ◽  
High Seas

Abstract Marine protected areas (MPAs) were initially introduced to protect coastal zones and are increasingly being proposed as part of a solution to an integrated approach in managing the oceans. There is also pressure for the use of marine reserves to play a part in the conservation strategy and management of mobile demersal and pelagic species in the high seas. However, as there is no coastal State, all States are free to use the open seas, and the relative success of MPAs depends on whether or not measures can be imposed on both domestic and foreign vessels. Therefore, the question is whether current international and national legislation is sufficiently effective to implement a solution to aid the success of MPAs or if new legal norms need to be introduced to aid the governance of the high seas. The implementation of a surveillance programme of maritime spaces would help to establish the efficacy of any review of the current legislation. New technical developments being utilized in surveillance have opened up the possibility of exploiting technology with a view to surveying and monitoring planet earth in an objective manner. But technical applications employed to manage risks can themselves be dangerous, as they create new risks for the maritime sector (e.g. espionnage). The maritime domain is a difficult and unpredictable environment in which to operate and, therefore, precludes the assured presence of human beings to perform monitoring tasks. Technology offers us the opportunity to overcome the physical difficulties by putting into practice surveillance using more effective methods. Identifying the appropriate technology and providing funding is a priority.

Rate of Absorption of Water from Stomach and Small Bowel of Human Beings

1954 ◽  
Vol 27 (5) ◽  
pp. 565-577 ◽  
Author(s):  
John F. Scholer ◽  
Charles F. Code
Keyword(s):  
Small Bowel ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Rate Of Absorption

A Study of the Action of Prostigmine on the Bowel of Human Beings

1949 ◽  
Vol 12 (6) ◽  
pp. 970-977 ◽  
Author(s):  
John M. McMahon ◽  
Charles F. Code ◽  
Willtam G. Saver ◽  
J. Arnold Bargen
Keyword(s):  
Human Beings

Constructing and Deconstructing Concepts

2016 ◽  
Vol 63 (5) ◽  
pp. 249-262 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles A. Doan ◽  
Ronaldo Vigo
Keyword(s):  
Information Theory ◽  
Model Performance ◽  
Unsupervised Classification ◽  
Family Resemblance ◽  
Category Membership ◽  
Formal Models ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
One Dimensional ◽  
Relational Patterns ◽  
Optimal Classification

Abstract. Several empirical investigations have explored whether observers prefer to sort sets of multidimensional stimuli into groups by employing one-dimensional or family-resemblance strategies. Although one-dimensional sorting strategies have been the prevalent finding for these unsupervised classification paradigms, several researchers have provided evidence that the choice of strategy may depend on the particular demands of the task. To account for this disparity, we propose that observers extract relational patterns from stimulus sets that facilitate the development of optimal classification strategies for relegating category membership. We conducted a novel constrained categorization experiment to empirically test this hypothesis by instructing participants to either add or remove objects from presented categorical stimuli. We employed generalized representational information theory (GRIT; Vigo, 2011b , 2013a , 2014 ) and its associated formal models to predict and explain how human beings chose to modify these categorical stimuli. Additionally, we compared model performance to predictions made by a leading prototypicality measure in the literature.

Behavioral Testing of Mice Concerning Anxiety and Depression

2015 ◽  
Vol 223 (3) ◽  
pp. 151-156 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nina Schweinfurth ◽  
Undine E. Lang
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Influences ◽  
Sickness Behavior ◽  
Laboratory Research ◽  
Anxiety And Depression ◽  
Housing Conditions ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Behavioral Testing ◽  
New Developments ◽  
Animal Trials ◽  
Resilience Factors

Abstract. In the development of new psychiatric drugs and the exploration of their efficacy, behavioral testing in mice has always shown to be an inevitable procedure. By studying the behavior of mice, diverse pathophysiological processes leading to depression, anxiety, and sickness behavior have been revealed. Moreover, laboratory research in animals increased at least the knowledge about the involvement of a multitude of genes in anxiety and depression. However, multiple new possibilities to study human behavior have been developed recently and improved and enable a direct acquisition of human epigenetic, imaging, and neurotransmission data on psychiatric pathologies. In human beings, the high influence of environmental and resilience factors gained scientific importance during the last years as the search for key genes in the development of affective and anxiety disorders has not been successful. However, environmental influences in human beings themselves might be better understood and controllable than in mice, where environmental influences might be as complex and subtle. The increasing possibilities in clinical research and the knowledge about the complexity of environmental influences and interferences in animal trials, which had been underestimated yet, question more and more to what extent findings from laboratory animal research translate to human conditions. However, new developments in behavioral testing of mice involve the animals’ welfare and show that housing conditions of laboratory mice can be markedly improved without affecting the standardization of results.

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