Polychrome sculpture forms a cornerstone of the religious art produced in Spain in the early modern period. During the 16th century a single piece of wood was often used and during the 17th century wood sections were joined together with nails or dowels. The carved wood was covered by layers of gesso which was then painted. For areas of flesh the paint is done in encarnaciones or flesh tones in gloss or matte finish. For the dressed portions of the sculpture, bole was used to hold gold or silver leaf in place. On other occasions the artist tried to imitate quilted silk known as estofa through the estofado technique where paint was placed on top of the gold or silver leaf and the desired pattern was scratched out or punched. The use of glue-sized fabric or tela encolada was also prevelent and as the 17th century progressed the use of postizos such as cork, bull’s horn, and glass eyes increased. Glass and crystal were used to make eyes and teardrops, the polychrome cork for open wounds, human parts or animal bones were frequently used for making teeth and nails, human or animal hair for eyelashes and hair, and gold, silver, and gemstones to make jewelry. Some sculptures done in the round also had movable parts such as arms or legs and others could be dressed with fabric. The sculptures that are adorned with fabric are known as imagenes de vestir. Besides single figures for procession or worship large altarpieces were also produced in Spain. The retablo incorporates an architectural framework with sculpture and painting that can be traced from the Gothic to the late 17th century. The hierarchy of the sculpture workshop was divided into masters, officials, and apprentices. This hierarchy as well as the labor they practiced was often flexible. For example, we know of officials that were considered masters and of masters that completed all parts of the labor. In general, the labor in the sculpture workshop was divided into specialists such as entallador (carver specialized in decorative motifs), ensamblador (assemblyman), aparejador (preparer), dorador (guilder), estofador (decoration imitating textiles), encarnadores (painters of flesh tones), and lapidarios (gemworkers). Sculptors and painters collaborated on the production of these works. With time, sculptors took examinations in both disciplines to achieve complete control of their creations.
Radiocarbon dating of lead white: novel application in the study of polychrome sculpture