Radiocarbon dating of lead white: novel application in the study of polychrome sculpture

Recently, radiocarbon dating underwent considerable technological advances allowing unprecedented sample size downscaling. These achievements introduced novel opportunities in dating cultural heritage objects. Within this pioneering research, the possibility of a direct 14C dating of lead white pigment and organic binder in paint samples was investigated on polychrome sculptures, a foremost artistic expression in human history. The polychromy, an indivisible part of polychrome sculpture, holds a key role in the interpretation and understanding of these artworks. Unlike in other painted artworks, the study of polychromies is repeatedly hampered by repaints and degradation. The omnipresence of lead white within the original polychromy was thus pursued as dating proxy. Thermal decomposition allowed bypassing geologic carbonate interferences caused by the object's support material, while an added solvent extraction successfully removed conservation products. This radiocarbon dating survey of the polychromy from 16 Portuguese medieval limestone sculptures confirmed that some were produced within the proposed chronologies while others were revised. Within this multidisciplinary study, the potential of radiocarbon dating as a complementary source of information about these complex paint systems guiding their interpretation is demonstrated. The challenges of this innovative approach are highlighted and improvements on sampling and sample preparation are discussed.

A Cultural History of Color in the Medieval Age

Volume 2 A Cultural History of Color in the Medieval Age covers the period 500 to 1400. The medieval age saw an extraordinary burst of color - from illuminated manuscripts and polychrome sculpture to architecture and interiors, and from enamelled and jewelled metalwork to colored glass and the exquisite decoration of artefacts. Color was used to denote affiliation in heraldry and social status in medieval clothes. Color names were created in various languages and their resonance explored in poems, romances, epics, and plays. And, whilst medieval philosophers began to explain the rainbow, theologians and artists developed a color symbolism for both virtues and vices. Color shapes an individual’s experience of the world and also how society gives particular spaces, objects, and moments meaning. The 6 volume set of the Cultural History of Color examines how color has been created, traded, used, and interpreted over the last 5000 years. The themes covered in each volume are color philosophy and science; color technology and trade; power and identity; religion and ritual; body and clothing; language and psychology; literature and the performing arts; art; architecture and interiors; and artefacts. Volume 2 in the Cultural History of Color set. General Editors: Carole P. Biggam and Kirsten Wolf

The reintegration of losses in a wooden late baroque polychrome crucifix: issues and ways to approach the selection of materials

This work will review two different interventions of plastic and pictorial reintegration that a wooden late baroque polychrome sculpture has undergone. The Crucifix of Monte Giove, restored in the laboratory of the University of Urbino Carlo Bo, has unveiled large losses of the wood, some of which have altered the plastic forms and polychromy, and a shrinkage crack that has caused a deep vertical split in the torso and an alteration of the original volume. These issues have presented an opportunity for further discussion and study, relating to the potential solutions for each type of damage: the use of magnets to make the reconstructed elements movable and reversible and a filler for the wood’s crack to solve both the structural and the aesthetic issues. These two choices have been discussed analysing the critical approaches, the materials selection and the aesthetic results.

Polychrome Sculpture in Early Modern Spain

Polychrome sculpture forms a cornerstone of the religious art produced in Spain in the early modern period. During the 16th century a single piece of wood was often used and during the 17th century wood sections were joined together with nails or dowels. The carved wood was covered by layers of gesso which was then painted. For areas of flesh the paint is done in encarnaciones or flesh tones in gloss or matte finish. For the dressed portions of the sculpture, bole was used to hold gold or silver leaf in place. On other occasions the artist tried to imitate quilted silk known as estofa through the estofado technique where paint was placed on top of the gold or silver leaf and the desired pattern was scratched out or punched. The use of glue-sized fabric or tela encolada was also prevelent and as the 17th century progressed the use of postizos such as cork, bull’s horn, and glass eyes increased. Glass and crystal were used to make eyes and teardrops, the polychrome cork for open wounds, human parts or animal bones were frequently used for making teeth and nails, human or animal hair for eyelashes and hair, and gold, silver, and gemstones to make jewelry. Some sculptures done in the round also had movable parts such as arms or legs and others could be dressed with fabric. The sculptures that are adorned with fabric are known as imagenes de vestir. Besides single figures for procession or worship large altarpieces were also produced in Spain. The retablo incorporates an architectural framework with sculpture and painting that can be traced from the Gothic to the late 17th century. The hierarchy of the sculpture workshop was divided into masters, officials, and apprentices. This hierarchy as well as the labor they practiced was often flexible. For example, we know of officials that were considered masters and of masters that completed all parts of the labor. In general, the labor in the sculpture workshop was divided into specialists such as entallador (carver specialized in decorative motifs), ensamblador (assemblyman), aparejador (preparer), dorador (guilder), estofador (decoration imitating textiles), encarnadores (painters of flesh tones), and lapidarios (gemworkers). Sculptors and painters collaborated on the production of these works. With time, sculptors took examinations in both disciplines to achieve complete control of their creations.

The Technique of Creating Buddhist Polychrome Sculpture

This work focuses on the origin, development, evolution of the Chinese art of polychrome sculpture, as well as philosophical ideas, national specificities, cultural content, a religious concept, artistic specificity and aesthetic ideas manifested in this context. The study provides a picture of how the cultural specificities of China are expressed in art and how spirituality is reflected in works of art. An objective description and complete historical research of the mentioned historical sites increase the available information on them and are meant to strengthen measures intended for their protection. The first comprehensive and detailed analysis of the technology for creating Chinese traditional Buddhist polychrome sculpture is presented in the article.The subject-matter of the artworks, the characteristics of the material used to create them, and the sculpting methods are fully analyzed through the method of a thorough study of the current state of the preserved polychrome sculpture in the Shuanglin Monastery. Two thousand and fifty-four statues of polychrome sculpture, the main of which are Buddha (佛祖), Bodhisattva (菩萨), Heavenly Kings (天王) and Arhat (罗汉) are preserved in the monastery. They are divided into two large groups: circular form sculptures and bas-reliefs. Clay, wood, water, straw, and mineral pigments are the main materials used for the creation of Buddhist polychrome sculptures. Modeling and polychrome painting are two main technologies in the process of making sculptures. Modeling consisted of creating a frame, applying coarse clay and sculpting a large-scale figure, applying medium density clay, applying thin layers of clay and creating details, whitening, bas-relief painting with the chalk-glue mixture, gilding, painting, etc. From the point of view of form, the ancient Chinese Buddhist polychrome sculpture as a work of religious art had to correspond to Buddhist canons. Before starting the process of creating a statue, a craftsman had to make a sketch. During modeling, an artist was guided by the secrets of the craft passed down orally from a teacher to his student and summarized as a technical guide by his predecessors. Statue of Skanda. Dynasty Min. Shuanglin Buddhist polychrome sculpture as a form of fine art with an elaborated form and rich spiritual content perfectly combines technology and artistry.