Disentangling the mechanisms underlying spatial distribution of genetic variation into those due to environment or physical barriers from mere geographic distance is challenging in complex landscapes. The Andean uplift represents one of the most heterogeneous habitats where these questions remain unexplored as multiple mechanisms might interact, confounding their relative roles. We explore this broad question in the leaf-cutting ant Atta cephalotes, a species distributed across the Andes Mountains using nuclear microsatellite markers and mtCOI gene sequences. We investigate spatial genetic divergence across the Western range of Northern Andes in Colombia by testing the relative role of alternative scenarios of population divergence, including geographic distance (IBD), climatic conditions (IBE), and physical barriers due to the Andes Mountains (IBB). Our results reveal substantial genetic differentiation among A. cephalotes populations for both types of markers, but only nuclear divergence followed a hierarchical pattern with multiple models of genetic divergence imposed by the Western range. Model selection showed that IBD, IBE (temperature and precipitation), and IBB (Andes mountains) models, often proposed as individual drivers of genetic divergence, interact, and explain up to 33% of genetic divergence in A. cephalotes. IBE models remained significant after accounting for IBD, suggesting that environmental factors play a more prominent role when compared to IBB. These factors in combination with idiosyncratic dispersal patterns of ants appear to determine hierarchical patterns of gene flow. This study enriches our understanding of the forces shaping population divergence in complex habitat landscapes.
Landscape genetics across the Andes Mountains: Environmental variation drives genetic divergence in the leaf-cutting ant Atta cephalotes
