Two Routes to CSR: Mixing Religion, State, and Market

The problems of research of internalities and externalities with the further development of the general classification of externalities of economic activity of the enterprise are defined. The influence of negative and positive externalities on society and enterprise is considered. The concept of negative externalities differs from transaction costs. It is noted that transaction costs can be reflected in cash and can be offset by market inclusion in the price of the products, but this is not possible for externalities. It is emphasized that the purpose of economic activity of any enterprise is to exceed the positive externalities over the negative and achieve the maximum difference between them. The different time duration of the impact of the enterprise on third parties is given. The sign of externalities on the scale of action is emphasized. The externalities of the enterprise are considered in their essence according to the principles of sustainable development, highlighting economic, social and environmental externalities. It is emphasized that economic externalities can arise in the course of the whole business cycle of full-fledged work of all parts of the enterprise. In contrast to economic, social externalities affect people both within the enterprise, that is workers and citizens of the society in which the enterprise operates. And when it comes to environmental externalities, the mediator between the source and recipient of externalities is the environment. Externalities are distinguished according to the means of accounting and the degree of influence on the subject of perception. The necessity of regulation of externalities through internalization and actions of the enterprise with the help of state and market instruments is substantiated. It is emphasized that internalization is the transformation of negative externalities into positive ones in terms of convergence of marginal costs and benefits of the enterprise to marginal social costs and utility.

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The political ecology of hazard vulnerability: marginalization, facilitation and the production of differential risk to urban wildfires in Arizona's White Mountains

Journal of Political Ecology ◽

10.2458/v15i1.21686 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 15 (1) ◽

pp. 21 ◽

Cited By ~ 62

Author(s):

Timothy W. Collins

Keyword(s):

Political Ecology ◽

The Political ◽

Forest Landscape ◽

Market Institutions ◽

White Mountains ◽

State And Market ◽

Hazard Vulnerability ◽

Differential Risk

The concept of marginalization, which is central to studies in political ecology, can be strengthened by incorporating a focus on the mutually constitutive concept of facilitation. Facilitation connotes how privileged groups are provided institutional forms of security in their pursuit of private gain, contributing to deleterious social and ecological outcomes. This paper builds on the concept of marginalization by outlining its application in previous studies. Next, it demonstrates how a dual focus on marginalization and facilitation can help strengthen understanding of the political ecology of risks, hazards and, disasters based on the case of urban wildfire hazards in Arizona's White Mountains. It concludes by discussing implications for understandings of differential risk and hazard vulnerability. In a world where privileged people are increasingly harnessing resources of state and market institutions to externalize risks and capitalize on environmental opportunities, facilitation offers a conceptual complement to marginalization and broadens the political ecology frame. Keywords: hazard, vulnerability, risk, marginalization, fire, forest, landscape, Arizona

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