PEMBENTUKAN PLA ROCKET FORCE SEBAGAI UPAYA TIONGKOK DALAM PENGAMANAN KEPENTINGAN NASIONAL

President Xi Jinping carried out a military reorganization carried out in 2015. The reorganization included forming the PLA Rocket Force as a new dimension tasked with handling missile weapons, both conventional and nuclear. This article uses offensive-defensive theory in analyzing the formation of PLARF as an effort to secure national interests. Furthermore, this article will explain why China formed PLARF and prefers to develop these missile weapons through offensive-defensive theory variables. Thus it can be said that the factor of weaponry technology plays a dominant role in the formation of PLARF. Keyword : PLARF, China, Offense-Defense Abstrak Presiden Xi Jinping melakukan reorganisasi militer pada tahun 2015. Reorganisasi tersebut diantaranya mengubah PLA Second Altilery Corps (PLASAC) menjadi PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) sebagai matra baru yang sejajar dengan matra liannya serta memiliki tugas untuk menangani persenjataan misil, konvensional maupun nuklir. PLARF dilengkapi persenjataan rudal dengan berbagai jelajah. Pengembangan teknologi persenjataan dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan PLARF. Secara geografis, PLARF diperlukan untuk melindungi wilayah territorial Tiongkok. Presiden Xi Jinping menggambarkan PLARF sebagai inti kekuatan deterrence strategis Tiongkok, yang diperlihatkan melalui parade militer secara besar. PLARF juga disiapkan untuk melakukan operasi gabungan, serta adanya kontrol CMC terhadap PLARF memberikan kewenangan yang unik .Artikel ini menggunakan teori ofensif-defensif dalam menganalisis reorganisasi militer yang dilakukan Tiongkok. Selanjutnya, artikel ini akan menjelaskan mengapa Tiongkok membentuk PLARF serta lebih memilih mengembangkan persenjataan misil tersebut melalui variabel teori ofensif-defensif. Dengan demikian dapat dikatakan bahwa faktor teknologi persenjataan memegang peran dominan dalam pembentukan PLARF. Kata kunci : PLARF,Tiongkok, Ofensif-Defensif

The Indian Army, 1850–1950

In 1850, the armed forces of the English East India Company were comprised of three Presidency Sepoy Armies and the Bombay Marine sometimes called the Indian Navy. A British Army garrison drawn on rotation from infantry, cavalry, and artillery units, numbering around 50,000, was stationed in India as a counterpoise to the sepoy armies. Between 1750 and 1850, the sepoy armies developed as self-contained forces with separate budgets, commands, recruitment, artillery, infantry, and cavalry. In 1850, the Bombay and Madras Armies, theoretically autonomous, were subordinated to Calcutta. Entrusted with the conquest of north and northwest India, the Bengal Army became the largest sepoy army in the 19th century, recruiting high-caste Purbias from the Gangetic plains. Numerous Bengal Army regiments mutinied in 1857 and a major military reorganization in 1859 was recommended by the Peel Commission. The consequence was the single “class” (actually an ethnic or caste community) company and mixed-class battalion model. Numerous Sikh and Gurkha units were regularized in the Bengal Army and the number of Purbia battalions was reduced. The Presidency Armies were reformed again after the Second Afghan War (1878–1880) on the recommendations of the Eden Commission (1879). From 1875 to 1900, Indian military recruitment was influenced by the “martial races” theory, which remained influential up to 1947. In the 1880s, the movement toward the unification of the Presidency Armies strengthened. In 1891, the presidency staff corps became the Indian staff corps, and in 1895 a single four-command Indian Army came into existence. Between 1902 and 1909, the regiments were renumbered in a new series and reforms were carried out by Lord Kitchener. These reforms failed to stem the growing criticism of the Indian Army in official circles. The result was the appointment of the Nicholson Committee in 1912 whose recommendations were preempted by World War I (1914-1918). World War I highlighted several deficiencies in the Indian Army, most of which remained unaddressed until World War II. In the interwar years, a massive retrenchment and budgetary constraints restricted the modernization of the army. Limited Indianization, the setting up of the Indian Military Academy (IMA), and technological obsolescence were the chief characteristics of the history of the Indian Army in the interwar years. Finally, the Chatfield Committee observations (1939) painted a grim picture of Indian defense; British rearmament from 1932 had left precious little money for the Indian Army. In 1947, the Indian Army was divided into the Indian and Pakistani Armies, commanded by senior British officers up to the early 1950s. In sum, the Indian Army was decisive in the expansion and consolidation of the British Empire in Africa and Asia. Further, its services in the two world wars ensured the survival of the Empire and, thereby, Britain itself. Although the loyalty of this army was tested by small and large mutinies, it generally remained a trusted instrument of British control in south Asia between 1858 and 1947.

Rumor Wars

Following military failures in late 1644, long-simmering religious differences burst into public, threatening to sunder parliament’s cause. A formidable presbyterian alliance gathered strength, deploying multiple tactics to pressure parliament to settle the church and crack down on the sects; at the same time, a developing independent coalition adopted equally sophisticated techniques of organization and propaganda to counter this push. This chapter analyzes these practices—including petitioning, lobbying, secret printing, street propaganda, rumormongering, and regular meetings—to reveal a novel environment of energetic partisan politics. These organizational developments were accompanied by ideological shifts, in which presbyterians drew back from earlier militant political commitments, while some independents articulated newly radical political ideas, hinting at social egalitarianism, press freedom, democratization of the polity, or limitations on state power. Moreover, these ideological shifts and religious divisions increasingly dovetailed with disputes over military reorganization, culminating in the creation of the New Model Army.