Ubiquitination modulates a protein energy landscape site-specifically with consequences for proteasomal degradation

Cellular environments modulate protein energy landscapes to drive important biology, where small perturbations are consequential for biological signaling, allostery, and other vital processes. The energetic effects of ubiquitination are interesting due to its potential influence on degradation by the 26S proteasome, which requires intrinsically flexible or unstructured initiation regions that many known proteasome substrates lack. We generated proteins with natively attached, isopeptide-linked ubiquitin in structured domains to assess the energetic changes contributed by ubiquitin and how such changes manifest at the proteasome. Ubiquitination at sensitive sites destabilizes the native structure, and thereby increases the rate of degradation for substrates containing unstructured initiation regions. Importantly, this ubiquitination can even induce those requisite regions in well-folded proteins for proteasomal engagement. Our results indicate a biophysical role of site-specific ubiquitination as a potential regulatory mechanism for energy-dependent substrate degradation.

Steroid Hydroxylation by Basidiomycete Peroxygenases: a Combined Experimental and Computational Study

ABSTRACTThe goal of this study is the selective oxyfunctionalization of steroids under mild and environmentally friendly conditions using fungal enzymes. With this purpose, peroxygenases from three basidiomycete species were tested for the hydroxylation of a variety of steroidal compounds, using H2O2as the only cosubstrate. Two of them are wild-type enzymes fromAgrocybe aegeritaandMarasmius rotula, and the third one is a recombinant enzyme fromCoprinopsis cinerea. The enzymatic reactions on free and esterified sterols, steroid hydrocarbons, and ketones were monitored by gas chromatography, and the products were identified by mass spectrometry. Hydroxylation at the side chain over the steroidal rings was preferred, with the 25-hydroxyderivatives predominating. Interestingly, antiviral and other biological activities of 25-hydroxycholesterol have been reported recently (M. Blanc et al., Immunity 38:106–118, 2013,http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2012.11.004). However, hydroxylation in the ring moiety and terminal hydroxylation at the side chain also was observed in some steroids, the former favored by the absence of oxygenated groups at C-3 and by the presence of conjugated double bonds in the rings. To understand the yield and selectivity differences between the different steroids, a computational study was performed using Protein Energy Landscape Exploration (PELE) software for dynamic ligand diffusion. These simulations showed that the active-site geometry and hydrophobicity favors the entrance of the steroid side chain, while the entrance of the ring is energetically penalized. Also, a direct correlation between the conversion rate and the side chain entrance ratio could be established that explains the various reaction yields observed.

The roughness of the protein energy landscape results in anomalous diffusion of the polypeptide backbone

Recombination of photolysed protein disulfide bonds confirms subdiffusional backbone motion and measures the roughness of the protein's energy landscape.