The Aesthetic Mediation

In the visual arts of the Romantic period the crucifixion of Christ often became a representation of the sufferings of humanity. Caspar David Friedrich’s paintings placed the cross in the context of the immensity of nature. Toward the end of the nineteenth century there was an increasing tendency to portray Jesus’ suffering in the genre of naturalistic realism. Some painters consciously attempted to incorporate the findings of modern biblical scholarship, rather than follow traditional models. Early film representations, on the other hand, tended to rely on classical types and popular piety.

The Aesthetic Mediation

New texts and styles predominated in the period following Bach’s settings of the passion. In Protestant church music, more poetic and operatic settings became common, with more emotional stress. Roman Catholic passion music centered on the genre of the sepolcro, with meditations on the reactions of Jesus’ disciples to his suffering and death. The Romantic period produced only a few great works centered on the passion.

The Aesthetic Mediation

The passion of Christ was one of the centers of devotional piety in the nineteenth century. It was associated especially with a spirituality of suffering and sorrow. The Roman Catholic Mass was frequently interpreted as a representation of the passion of Jesus. The image of the Sacred Heart became a widespread focus of devotion.

The Theological Mediation

Enlightenment thinkers like Thomas Jefferson and Rousseau presented a version of Christianity in which Jesus is seen more as a teacher of morality than as a divine savior. Rationalist thinkers presented radical objections to the classical “satisfaction” theory of salvation. This chapter surveys major responses by theologians and philosophers, some attempting to defend traditional doctrine, others proposing new interpretations.

The Early Modern Context and Changing Paradigms

Europe and the Americas during the early modern period (1750–1900) experienced revolutionary changes in paradigms of thought and activity. The intellectual and social climate challenged traditional Christian ideas of salvation. While Jesus was still seen by many as the divine redeemer, radical critics saw in him a source of world-denying and anti-humanistic religion. Others regarded him as an incarnation of the universal Spirit. Yet others saw him as a social revolutionary, introducing a this-worldly salvation.

Epilogue and Prospect

The works of the Theosophist Annie Besant represent a modern effort to reinterpret Christ’s passion in light of non-Christian religions and universal experience. They introduce perspectives and questions that were formative for the postmodern period.