In this paper, we conduct a comparative study on the mineralogy and geochemistry of metalliferous sediment collected near the active hydrothermal site (Wocan-1) and inactive hydrothermal site (Wocan-2) from Wocan Hydrothermal Field, on the Carlsberg Ridge (CR), northwest Indian Ocean. We aim to understand the spatial variations in the primary and post-depositional conditions and the intensity of hydrothermal circulations in the Wocan hydrothermal systems. Sediment samples were collected from six stations which includes TVG-07, TVG-08 (Wocan-1), TVG-05, TVG-10 (Wocan-2), TVG-12 and TVG-13 (ridge flanks). The mineralogical investigations show that sediment samples from Wocan-1 and Wocan-2 are composed of chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, barite, gypsum, amorphous silica, altered volcanic glass, Fe-oxides, and hydroxides. The ridge flank sediments are dominated by biogenic calcite and foraminifera assemblages. The bulk sediment samples of Wocan-1 have an elevated Fe/Mn ratio (up to ~1545), with lower U contents (<7.4 ppm) and U/Fe ratio (<~1.8 × 10−5). The sulfide separates (chalcopyrite, pyrite, and sphalerite) are enriched in Se, Co, As, Sb, and Pb. The calculated sphalerite precipitation temperature (Sph.PT) yields ~278 °C. The sulfur isotope (δ34S) analysis returned a light value of 3.0–3.6‰. The bulk sediment samples of Wocan-2 have a lower Fe/Mn ratio (<~523), with high U contents (up to 19.6 ppm) and U/Fe ratio (up to ~6.2 × 10−5). The sulfide separates are enriched in Zn, Cu, Tl, and Sn. The calculated Sph.PT is ~233 °C. The δ34S returned significant values of 4.1–4.3‰ and 6.4–8.7‰ in stations TVG-10 and TVG-05, respectively. The geochemical signatures (e.g., Fe/Mn and U/Fe ratio, mineral chemistry of sulfides separates, and S-isotopes and Sph.PT) suggest that sediment samples from Wocan-1 are located near intermediate–high temperature hydrothermal discharge environments. Additionally, relatively low δ34S values exhibit a lower proportion (less than 20%) of seawater-derived components. The geochemical signatures suggest that sediment samples from Wocan-2 has undergone moderate–extensive oxidation and secondary alterations by seawater in a low–intermediate temperature hydrothermal environments. Additionally, the significant δ34S values of station TVG-05 exhibit a higher estimated proportion (up to 41%) of seawater-derived components. Our results showed pervasive hydrothermal contributions into station TVG-08 relative to TVG-07, it further showed the increased process of seafloor weathering at TVG-05 relative to TVG-10.
Clathrate blankets as (in)surmountable barriers for hydrothermal systems in Europa
