Norekian, Tigran P. and Richard A. Satterlie. Cholinergic activation of startle motoneurons by a pair of cerebral interneurons in the pteropod mollusk Clione limacina. J. Neurophysiol. 77: 281–288, 1997. The holoplanktonic pteropod mollusk Clione limacina exhibits an active escape behavior that is characterized by fast swimming away from the source of potentially harmful stimuli. The initial phase of escape behavior is a startle response that is controlled by pedal motoneurons whose activity is independent of the normal swim pattern generator. In this study, a pair of cerebral interneurons is described that produces strong activation of the d-phase startle motoneurons, which control dorsal flexion of the wings. These interneurons were designated cerebral startle (Cr-St) interneurons. Each Cr-St neuron has a small cell body on the dorsal surface of the cerebral ganglia and one large axon that runs into the ipsilateral cerebral-pedal connective and the neuropile of the ipsilateral pedal ganglion. Each spike in a Cr-St neuron produces a fast, high-amplitude (up to 50 mV) excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) in the d-phase startle motoneurons. This 1:1 ratio of spikes to EPSPs and the stable short synaptic latencies (2 ms) persist in high-Mg2+, high-Ca2+ seawater, suggesting monosynaptic connections. Synaptic transmission between Cr-St neurons and startle motoneurons exhibits a very slow synaptic depression, because a number of spikes in Cr-St neurons is required to achieve a noticeable decrease in EPSP amplitude. Synaptic transmission between Cr-St interneurons and startle motoneurons appears to be cholinergic. In startle neurons, 20 μM atropine and 50 μM d-tubocurarine reversibly block EPSPs produced by spike activity in Cr-St interneurons. Hexamethonium only partially blocks EPSPs in startle neurons, and much higher concentrations are required. Exogenous acetylcholine (1 μM) produces a dramatic depolarization of startle motoneurons in high-Mg2+ seawater, and this depolarization is reversibly blocked by atropine. Nicotine also has a depolarizing effect on startle motoneurons, although higher concentrations are required. Cr-St interneurons and startle motoneurons are also electrically coupled; however, the coupling is weak. Stimuli that are known to initiate escape responses in intact animals, such as tactile stimulation of the tail or wings, produce excitatory inputs to Cr-St interneurons. In addition, tactile stimulation of the lips and buccal cones, which is known to trigger prey capture reactions in Clione, also produces excitatory inputs to Cr-St interneurons and startle motoneurons, suggesting involvement of the startle neuronal system in prey capture behavior of Clione.
Behavioral response to antennal tactile stimulation in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus
