Topics covered include the notion that there are no dedicated memory encoding processes as such; rather, encoding is equated with perception and comprehension. Studies by Craik, Moscovitch, and McDowd (1994), and by Challis, Velichkovsky, and Craik (1996) are described and their implications discussed. The differential sensitivity of retrieval tests (e.g., implicit/explicit) to different encoding operations is discussed in terms of test requirements for different types of information rather than as reflecting different memory systems. General principles of encoding are proposed; these include depth, elaboration, congruity, and distinctiveness. Memory-boosting procedures such as rehearsal, organization, retrieval as encoding, the generation effect, and subject-performed tasks are discussed and evaluated. Other topics described, illustrated, and discussed include the picture superiority effect, the self-reference effect, the effect of task difficulty on later memory, differential effects of divided attention at encoding and retrieval, and the concept of consolidation.
Increasing word distinctiveness eliminates the picture superiority effect in recognition: Evidence for the physical-distinctiveness account
