Incubation temperature influences a suite of traits in avian offspring. However, the mechanisms underlying expression of these phenotypes are unknown. Given the importance of thyroid hormones in orchestrating developmental processes, we hypothesized that they may act as an upstream mechanism mediating the effects of temperature on hatchling phenotypic traits such as growth and thermoregulation. We found that plasma T
3
, but not T
4
concentrations, differed among newly hatched wood ducks (
Aix sponsa
) from different embryonic incubation temperatures. T
4
at hatching correlated with time spent hatching, and T
3
correlated with hatchling body condition, tarsus length, time spent hatching and incubation period. In addition, the T
3
: T
4
ratio differed among incubation temperatures at hatch. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that incubation temperature modulates plasma thyroid hormones which in turn influences multiple aspects of duckling phenotype.
Embryonic Developmental Patterns and Energy Expenditure Are Affected by Incubation Temperature in Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa)
