Two forms of brood amalgamation occur frequently in several species of North American waterfowl: (i) pre-hatch brood amalgamation, whereby a female lays her eggs in the nest of another female and the recipient thereafter provides all further care of the eggs and resulting offspring, and (ii) post-hatch brood amalgamation, whereby a female abandons or loses her young to another female after hatch, and the recipient subsequently tends the foster young. Some authors have viewed these behaviours as accidental or aberrant and of little evolutionary significance. More recently, a number of alternative hypotheses have been suggested. However, few of these hypotheses have been contrasted as viable alternatives and tested in the field, largely because an appropriate theoretical framework is lacking. We analyze the frequency of occurrence of brood amalgamation in North American anatids. We also review the hypotheses that have been proposed to explain these behaviours and erect a theoretical framework which applies to the evolution of both pre-hatch and post-hatch brood amalgamation, and which may apply to species other than those of the Anatidae. Finally, we show that the occurrence of brood amalgamation in North American waterfowl may be associated with low relative resource availability and K-type life-history traits.
Causal and functional correlates of brood amalgamation in the chinstrap penguin Pygoscelis antarctica : parental decision and adult aggressiveness