Face of Negotiation theory:A Critical Analysis of Hijab (Veil) Among Muslim Women In Pakistan

The practice of hijab (veiling) among Muslim women has triggered a great deal of scholarly exploration and debate. This research puts forward empirical evidence to clarify the perception of people about appearance and veil in Pakistani context and highlights the conflicting meanings and purposes of veil among people belonging to different strata of society. With the increasing popularity of veil among Muslim women not only motivated religious scholars to get into this matter holistically but also prompted sociolinguists to explore the reality. Informed by face negotiation theory and social semiotics, this study unveils the ideological implications of wearing hijab. To dissect the reality, the research has been carried out at two levels. First, it examines the perspective of observers through questionnaire and second, it investigates the ideology of women who do/don’t wear hijab through short interviews. Specifically hijab is assumed to draw a line among different strata of Pakistan on one hand while on other, in strict sense it creates a gap between exclusion and inclusion of women in Islamic/Muslim community

Forty years of conflict: the effects of gender and generation on conflict-management strategies

Purpose Previous studies examining the relationship between gender and conflict-management strategies have generally reported weak or inconsistent results. This paper aims to study extends past research by examining the main and interactive effects of gender on conflict-management strategies over time. The authors propose that conflict-management strategies commonly employed in the workplace are impacted by worker gender as predicted by face negotiation theory and vary over time based on the “generation” of the worker. Design/methodology/approach To test the study hypotheses, a field study was conducted to assess main and interactive effects of gender and generation on the five strategies for conflict management: Integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding and compromising. Questionnaire data were collected over four decades (1980s-2010s) from employed students (N = 6,613). Data analysis was performed using a multivariate analysis of covariance. Findings The results suggest female employees consistently use more noncompeting strategies (integrating, obliging, avoiding and compromising) than male employees and male employees consistently use more competing strategy (dominating) than female employees. All the main and interaction effects were significant. Research limitations/implications While this study involved primarily students in the USA studying management at two major public universities, there may be implications for a more global population of workers. However, the results support the notion advanced by face negotiation theory that men will generally seek to save face while women will generally avoid conflict in consideration of others. Practical implications This study demonstrates that workers employ different conflict-management strategies over time and the use of certain strategies varies by gender. An implication of this study is the need to regularly reassess selection, training and evaluation processes for managers. In addition, supervisors should encourage employees to enhance the effective use of cooperative (integrating, obliging and compromising) strategies and focus on specific situations when uncooperative strategies (dominating and avoiding) may be needed. Originality/value By using face negotiation theory as the organizing framework to examine changes in conflict-management strategies over time, this study contributes in a substantial way to the understanding of how gender and generation interact to influence the selection and use of conflict-management strategies in the workplace.