Anatomical aspects of the taxonomy of sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae)

Patterns of variation in the anatomy of achene epidermis and leaves were examined to assess the utility of anatomical characters in systematic and phylogenetic studies of Carex and the Cyperaceae. This study was based primarily on a review of the available literature. In addition, foliar anatomy of species in Carex sect. Phacocystis was investigated and patterns of variation within the section were analyzed using a centroid cluster algorithm. Nearly all genera and all sections of Carex for which data are available include species with single conical silica bodies in the achene epidermal cells as well as species with more elaborate, presumably derived, silica bodies. Similarly, most sections within Carex include species that have hypostomatous leaves with a single layer of bulliform cells and that lack papillae, as well as species with amphistomatous leaves, papillose epidermal cells, or multiple bulliform cells. Application of the "common equals primitive" in group criterion for determining evolutionary polarity indicates that single conical silica bodies and epapillose hypostomatous leaves are primitive character states in Carex. As both primitive and derived character states are widely distributed among sections, anatomical characters should not be generally applied as measures of similarity in phenetic approaches to classification but have potentially major importance in phylogenetic studies within and among sections.

Women and Naturalisation in Fourth-Century Athens: The Case of Archippe

What we know of citizenship, marriage and political status in Athens in the fourth century suggests that they were matters of no little public concern governed by a body of law which left few, if any, significant loopholes or anomalies. The ‘descent group’ criterion for citizenship had triumphed over the possible alternatives. The fundament of the system was the Periklean law (or laws) of 451/0, re-enacted in 403/2, and prescribing double endogamy — that is, citizen birth through both parents — as the normal qualification for a citizen (astos). Whether this fifth-century legislation declared mixed marriages (astos with xene, xenos with aste) positively invalid or merely deterred them indirectly, through the disabilities falling upon the children, remains unclear. It is certain, however, that by the time [Demosthenes] 59 was delivered, in the 340s, both the parties to and the accessories in such marriages were breaking the law. ‘At that time an alien who joined the oikos of a citizen as husband or wife (the word synoikein implies a purported marriage, not mere concubinage) could be prosecuted by graphe and, if found guilty, was sold as a slave; the citizen man who thus received an alien woman into his oikos as his wife was fined 1000 drachmas. A man who, acting as her kyrios, gave an alien woman to a citizen for marriage could also be prosecuted by graphe, and if he was found guilty he was disfranchised and his property was confiscated’.