Comparison

Chapter 20 deals with comparison. A distinction is made between expressions of comparison (equivalence and non-equivalence) and of similarity and dissimilarity. The former typically uses the comparative expression quam, the latter a coordinator. Attention is given to the ablative of comparison and the ablative of measure of difference. Comparative clauses of quality with ut are dealt with separately and so are proportional comparative expressions. Finally there is the absolute use of the comparative and the elative use of the superlative.

Information structure and extraclausal expressions

Chapter 22 deals with various aspects of the pragmatic organization of Latin texts and sentences. A distinction is made between constituents that function as topic or as focus in their clause. In addition constituents can be contrastive or emphatic. Emphasis is often made clear through emphatic particles, which are discussed in detail. Three types of extraclausal constituents are distinguished: themes, settings, and tails. Other extraclausal constituents are curses, interjections, and forms of address.

Secondary predicates

Chapter 21 deals with secondary predicates (also called ‘praedicativa’), with quantifiers, and with the pronouns ipse and idem. The function of secondary predicate can be fulfilled by various categories of nominal expressions, such as adjectives, nouns, and participles which agree with the constituent to which they belong in case, number, and/or gender, but also by noun phrases in multiple case forms and prepositional phrases. The semantic relationship between the secondary predicate and the constituent it belongs to is usually implicit. A clause can contain more than one secondary predicate.

Word order

Chapter 23 deals with word order (also called constituent order). The actual order of constituents in Latin is determined by a large number of factors, among which the syntactic factor is only a minor one. These various factors are discussed. Some constituents at the clause level are limited in their position, others are mobile, with their position mainly determined by pragmatic factors as discussed in ch. 22. At the noun-phrase and prepositional-phrase levels the relative order is mainly determined by contrast and emphasis. The relative order of clauses in complex sentences is discussed as well.

Subordinate clauses: common properties and internal structure

Chapter 14 serves as a general introduction to clause combining, the various ways in which in Latin simple clauses can be combined into sentences or other units. It discusses the internal structure of subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, the role of subordinators, and the difference between subordination and coordination. In addition it deals briefly with periodic structure and and indirect speech.

Relative clauses

Chapter 18 deals with relative clauses, of which two types are distinguished: adnominal relative clauses, which modify an antecedent (a head-noun), and autonomous relative clauses, without an antecedent. Adnominal relative clauses can be restrictive or non-rectrictive. Autonomous relative clauses can fulfil various syntactic functions within their sentence and can be modified by determiners (especially is) and quantifiers. In addition, the connecting relative can be used to connect sentences.

Subordinate clauses with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs

Chapter 17 deals with subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, which depend on nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Some of these clauses are required by the meaning of the governing word, others are optional. A distinction is made between declarative, interrogative, and imperative subordinate clauses. They are discussed according to the various subordinating devices: subordinators (e.g. quod, ut), question particles, infinitives (including accusative and infinitive clauses), gerunds, supines, and nominal clauses.

Coordination

Chapter 19 deals with coordination, both syndetic (with an overt coordinator) and asyndetic. Three semantic types are distinguished: conjunctive, disjunctive, and adversative coordination. The conjoins that are coordinated may be clauses and noun, adjective, or adverb phrases. Conjoins can share a coordinator or have multiple coordinators. In addition there is epitactic coordination.

Subordinate clauses filling an argument position

Chapter 15 deals with subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, which function as argument of their governing verb (traditionally called complement clauses). A distinction is made between declarative, interrogative, and imperative subordinate clauses. They are discussed according to the various subordinating devices: subordinators (e.g. quod, ut), question particles, infinitives (including accusative and infinitive clauses), gerunds, gerundives, and nominal clauses.

Subordinate clauses filling a satellite position

Chapter 16 deals with subordinate clauses, both finite and non-finite, which function as satellites in their sentence (traditionally called adverbial clauses). The finite clauses with a subordinator are discussed according to their semantic function, e.g. reason, purpose, and condition. The non-finite clauses are discussed according to morphological type: infinitives, participles (including ablative absolute clauses), gerunds, gerundives, supines, and nominal clauses.