Halitosis is an oral condition caused by an increase in the concentration of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), such as methyl mercaptan and hydrogen sulfide, generated as a consequence of bacterial metabolism on the tongue biofilm. Microbial communities on the tongue of halitosis patients have been studied by bacterial culture, 16S rRNA taxonomic studies and metagenomics. However, there are currently no reports on the microbial gene-expression profiles. In this study, we performed RNAseq of tongue coating samples from control individuals and halitosis patients with different levels and composition of VSCs, as determined by gas chromatography. In this metatranscriptomic study, the activity of Streptococcus, Veillonella and Rothia species was associated with halitosis-free individuals while Prevotella, Fusobacterium and Leptotrichia species were associated with halitosis. Although methyl mercaptan is considered an indicator of halitosis, the metatranscriptome of patients in which only this VSC was present in elevated levels was similar to that of halitosis-free individuals. Veillonella dispar, Streptococcus parasanguinis and Rothia mucilaginosa were over-represented in halitosis-free communities in comparison to the rest of the groups, suggesting that these species could be used as a halitosis-free biomarkers. In contrast, the abundance of Prevotella shahi and Fusobacterium nucleatum were significantly higher when hydrogen sulfide concentration was over the established halitosis-threshold, making these species putative halitosis biomarkers. Finally, gene expression profiles showed a significant over-expression of genes involved in L-cysteine and L-homocysteine synthesis in halitosis-free individuals and an over-expression of genes responsible for cysteine degradation into hydrogen sulfide in halitosis patients. In addition, nitrate reduction into nitrite was also over-expressed in halitosis-free patients. In conclusion, halitosis was associated with communities that degrade amino acids and reduce sulfide, whereas tongue communities that produce L-cysteine from hydrogen sulfide and that reduce nitrate were associated with the absence of halitosis. The latter could provide new strategies to treat this condition.
Absorption of Hydrogen Sulfide and Methyl Mercaptan from Dilute Gas Mixtures
