Abstract
The ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) and its deterministic variants, mostly square root filters such as the ensemble transform Kalman filter (ETKF), represent a popular alternative to variational data assimilation schemes and are applied in a wide range of operational and research activities. Their forecast step employs an ensemble integration that fully respects the nonlinear nature of the analyzed system. In the analysis step, they implicitly assume the prior state and observation errors to be Gaussian. Consequently, in nonlinear systems, the analysis mean and covariance are biased, and these filters remain suboptimal. In contrast, the fully nonlinear, non-Gaussian particle filter (PF) only relies on Bayes’s theorem, which guarantees an exact asymptotic behavior, but because of the so-called curse of dimensionality it is exposed to weight collapse. Here, it is shown how to obtain a new analysis ensemble whose mean and covariance exactly match the Bayesian estimates. This is achieved by a deterministic matrix square root transformation of the forecast ensemble, and subsequently a suitable random rotation that significantly contributes to filter stability while preserving the required second-order statistics. The properties and performance of the proposed algorithm are further investigated via a set of experiments. They indicate that such a filter formulation can increase the analysis quality, even for relatively small ensemble sizes, compared to other ensemble filters in nonlinear, non-Gaussian scenarios. Localization enhances the potential applicability of this PF-inspired scheme in larger-dimensional systems. The proposed algorithm, which is fairly easy to implement and computationally efficient, is referred to as the nonlinear ensemble transform filter (NETF).
Realization of Second-Order Photonic Square-Root Topological Insulators
