<p>This thesis aimed to advance the knowledge on perceived discrimination (PD) from targets' perspectives and address gaps in research. Study 1 reports a meta-analysis examining correlates of PD across 63 studies involving 37,790 participants. Findings showed that greater PD was associated with increased race/ethnic identification, negative well-being, and attitudes favouring affirmative action (AA). Greater PD was also related to low job satisfaction, low self-esteem and low socio-economic status (SES). The strongest relationship was found between PD and job satisfaction, followed by negative well-being, race/ethnic identity, self-esteem, AA attitudes and SES. The negative correlation between PD and ethnic identity was moderated by type of measurement, research context and type of sample. Similarly, the link between SES and PD was moderated by research context and type of sample. The meta-analysis also identified major research gaps that served as the jump off point for the next studies. Consequently, a three-component research framework for the study of PD was proposed and tested in three studies. The components were: 1) nature of PD, 2) antecedents of PD, and 3) outcomes of PD. Study 2 explored the first component through separate focus groups discussions participated by immigrants from China (5), India (5), Philippines (5), Germany (4) and Zimbabwe (4). Through thematic analysis, a 4-quadrant model emerged from the themes. In Study 3-A, three PD scales that fit the focus groups' model were constructed and collectively named as Immigrants' Perceptions of Discrimination in the Workplace Scales (IPDWS). The scales' psychometric properties were tested using 155 employed immigrants. Ten factors emerged and converged into two higher order factors - Job-Entry and On-the-Job. Study 3B examined job and psychological well-being outcomes using the same immigrant sample. Findings showed that high PD (in career advancement, compensation and equal treatment in policies factors) predicted low job satisfaction, high PD (in career advancement and derogation) predicted low affective commitment, high PD (exclusion factor) predicted high turnover intentions, and high PD (derogation factor) predicted less life satisfaction and greater psychological distress. Finally, Study 4 examined proximal (age, gender, ethnicity and birthplace) and distal (organizational demographics, perceptions of justice and practices) antecedents of PD through 540 employees using Employee Perceptions of Discrimination in the Workplace Scales (a modified version of IPDWS). Findings showed that increasing age and lower income predicted lower PD (nonrecognition of education and experience). Conversely, increasing age predicted higher PD in career advancement. Moreover, greater PD (in career advancement) occurred in large organizations and the public sector (work dynamics). For organizational justice, higher procedural justice predicted lower PD (career advancement factor), interpersonal justice predicted lower PD (work dynamics and derogation factors), and informational justices predicted low PD (recognition of qualifications, career advancement, and work dynamics factors). As for organizational practices, higher employee-orientation predicted low PD (work dynamics) and higher innovation-orientation predicted low PD (career path factor). Overall, distal antecedents were better predictors of PD than the proximal antecedents. In summary, the research findings contribute to the general discrimination and organizational literatures and offer suggestions to policymaking bodies.</p>
Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis.
